*The Tripartite Invasion, 1956 * *General Nasser takes control. *
*More of this Feature* • Part 2: Israel, Britain, and France
Invade<http://africanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa112101b.htm>
*Related Resources* • Timeline: The Suez
Crisis<http://africanhistory.about.com/library/timelines/bl-Timeline-SuezCrisis.htm>
The Tripartite Invasion, or 1956 War, was perhaps the single most important
event in the history of African independence. The fallout from this
unsuccessful attempt by Britain, France, and Israel to maintain an influence
over the Suez Canal created a climate in Africa which both encouraged and
escalated the struggle for independence.
At the end of the Second World War, only four African countries could claim
to be independent from colonial rule: Ethiopia (which had been under British
administration following Italian occupation of 1935 - 41), Liberia, South
Africa, and Egypt. However, the Suez Canal Zone in Egypt was still under
occupation by British troops. As a result of the failed Tripartite Invasion,
another six countries gained full independence by 1958, 16 more in 1960, and
by the end of the 60's only seven continental African countries were still
under colonial power.
The cause of the war has a certain irony. American Cotton Kings, whose
ancestors benefited so much from the trans-Atlantic slave trade, were
concerned over competition from Egyptian cotton farmers. They demanded that
the USA stop funding improvements to the Aswan Dam which would increase
Egyptian cotton output threefold. A domino effect resulted in Britain and
the World Bank also withdrawing funding. Colonel Nasser, the Egyptian
premier, requiring funds to finance the Aswan Dam project, reacted by
nationalising the Suez Canal.
When Egypt achieved independence from Britain in 1922, it had certain
limitations imposed on it. Specifically, the right for Britain to maintain
garrisons and navel bases in the Suez Canal Zone. An Anglo-Egyptian
agreement in 1936 replaced the 1922 unilateral declaration of independence
(which had been imposed by Britain), setting a 20-year period for the
removal of British forces.
Following the Second World War, Britain embarked on a policy of
de-colonisation. In contrast to the experiences of India, Pakistan and
Ceylon, it was decided that granting self-rule in Africa would have to be a
long term process - a viewpoint supported by the United Nations. The
majority of Egyptians were in favour of a much faster process. Britain had
used Egypt as a base during the Second World War, interested mainly in
defeating the German forces in the Libyan desert. It had little interest in
the domestic politics of a country which was unfortunately riddled by
governmental corruption. When the pro-British Wafd government fell in 1952,
the previously secret Free Officers Movement, *El-Dhobatt El-Ahrar*, staged
a military coup (23-26 July, 1952).
The Free Officers Movement was formed in 1939 by Second Lieutenant Gamal
Abdul Nasser and eight like-minded officers (including Anwar al-Sadat, who
would be president form 1970-81). Convinced that reform of the Egyptian army
was necessary as a precursor to ejecting the British from Egypt, Nasser
carefully recruited members to his underground organisation. While fighting
for the Allies at El Alamein, he was able to make subversive contact with
German and Italian agents. By the end of the war, Nasser had been successful
in maintaining his cover and had reached the rank of major.
Although General Muhammad Naguib was the public face of the new
administration, Nasser (now promoted from major to colonel) maintained
control through the Revolutionary Command Committee. A earlier prime
minister, Ali Mahir, was offered the premiership of the new administration,
but resigned on 7 September, 1952. General Naguib became president, prime
minister, minister of war and commander-in-chief of the army. By 1954 King
Ahmad Farouk was deposed and General Naguib declared president of an
Egyptian Republic. Nasser and Naguib had different ideas on how the country
should be run, and Naguib was removed from office on two occasions.
On 26 October, 1954, the Muslim
Brotherhood<http://africanhistory.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-muslim_brotherhood.htm>attempted
to assassinate Colonel Nasser. The Muslim Brotherhood was
dissolved on 29 October, following widespread public demonstrations - which
included the burning of its headquarters by an enraged mob. General Naguib,
who was implicated in the assassination attempt, was ousted by Colonel
Nasser on 13 November and placed under house arrest. Nasser finally took
control of the country on 17 November.
Negotiations for British withdrawal began in February of 1953, but it was
not until July 1954 that agreement was reached. On 19 October, 1954, a
treaty ceding the Suez Canal to Egypt was signed which required all British
troops to be removed by June 1956. There was still one proviso: the British
would be allowed to return to Egypt if they, or any nearby Arab state, were
attacked. This condition was imposed as result of Cold War pressures and the
British fear of Soviet expansion in the region.
During 1955 General Nasser made several overtures to communist China and
USSR, trading cotton for military aid (an estimated $200 million of arms).
However, he maintained a public stance that he wanted to follow a
non-aligned policy, favouring neither the West or the Soviets. In reaction
to increased purchase of arms, especially from Czechoslovakia, both the US
and UK stopped their own arms sales to Egypt. Meanwhile, France was angered
by Egypt's aid to the growing Algerian national movement (which was fighting
for independence). When the US announced its intention to cut funding of the
Aswan Dam project, it specifically referred to Egypt's close ties to the
USSR.
On the fourth anniversary of the Egyptian Revolution, 26 July 1956, Colonel
Nasser announced his intention to nationalise the Suez Canal. Political
escalation, including the deportation of two British envoys for spying,
resulted in a stalemate. Nasser promised to compensate the Suez Canal
shareholders, but refused to accept international control of the canal.
Whilst the US, Britain, and France protested to the UN, the USSR sent
ship-pilots to aid Egypt. By September, Egypt was in full control of the
canal and war was looming.
For the British and French, the Suez Canal represented a vital lifeline to
oil supplies. The British premier Anthony Eden considered an immediate
attack on Egypt, but was informed by parliament that the country was not
prepared for such a military engagement. Eden secretly worked with France
and Israel to plan a combined attack against Egypt, concealing his
co-operation from both his cabinet and political allies (including the US).
According to the plan, Israel would attack across the Sinai Desert towards
the canal. Britain and France would issue an ultimatum demanding that
Egyptian and Israeli troops immediately withdraw - a demand to which General
Nasser could not possibly agree. This would give them an excuse to invade
and wrest control of the Suez Canal from Egypt.
On 29 October Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The first sign that this
was not a simple act of aggression by Israel came when the planned ultimatum
was delivered to Egypt before Israeli troops had actually reached the canal.
French and British forces began an invasion on 5 November, with an initial
airborne attack to remove Egyptian air power. Despite fierce resistance by
the Egyptians, Port Said and Port Faud soon fell.
Unfortunately for the three allies, there was widespread condemnation of the
invasion. Britain and France were threatened with military reprisals by the
USSR, and the US, worried by a potential escalation in the Cold War and an
increased involvement by the Soviet Union in Middle East and African
affairs, applied heavy political pressure (almost leading to the collapse of
the British pound).
On 7 November, the UN Assembly voted 65 to 1 that the invading countries
should quit Egyptian territory. A UN Emergency Force (UNEF) was created,
with the first troops arriving from Italy on 21 November. By the end of
December British and French forces were completely removed, and Israel had
returned all territory except for the Gaza Strip.
Nasser responded to the invasion by nationalising all British and French
assets in Egypt, and baring Israeli ships from the canal. The UNEF remained
along the Egyptian-Israeli border and along the Sinai coast until 1967.
Their removal contributed to the outbreak of the next Arab-Israeli war,
commonly known as the Six-Day War. Britain and Egypt did not restore
diplomatic relations until 1969.
General Nasser was proclaimed a hero throughout the Arab world, and his
success against the forces of European imperialism inspired the rest of
Africa in its struggle for independence.
--
"Usually when people are sad, they don't do anything. They just cry over
their condition. But when they get angry, they bring about a change."
- Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, 1965
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