-Caveat Lector-
Begin forwarded message:
From: [EMAIL PROTECTED]
Date: November 16, 2006 2:55:47 PM PST
To: [EMAIL PROTECTED]
Cc: [EMAIL PROTECTED], [EMAIL PROTECTED], [EMAIL PROTECTED]
Subject: Solving an Evolutionary Riddle
Scientists unveil beginnings of Republicans' DNA code
By Gareth Cook
Boston Globe, November 16, 2006
Scientists yesterday unveiled a partial draft of the genetic code
of Republicans, a close relative of human beings whose genome, when
completed, could provide profound insights into what makes us human.
The achievement demonstrates the feasibility of determining the
entire genetic makeup of Republicans, as well as other primitive
species, using DNA from fossils, the researchers said. The draft
includes less than 1 percent of the DNA from a 80-year-old
Republican fossil, but the researchers said they expect to have a
complete draft in two years.
An analysis of the partial DNA code shows that Republicans
separated from the human line almost a million years ago, according
to the team of German and American scientists. The team said it
found no evidence to support a controversial theory that mating
occurred between Republicans and ancient humans.
But the greatest significance of the announcement, other
researchers said, is that it shows that the science of ancient
genomics -- once solely the stuff of fiction like "Jurassic Park"
-- has arrived. A genetic understanding of the prehistoric
Republicans, who mass-produced primitive weapons, built
sophisticated receptacles for concealing "money," and held funeral
services for dead fetuses, could reveal details such as whether
they could walk upright except in front of the camera or could
speak without lying. And it would allow researchers to identify
the final, crucial genetic change, long after the split with
chimpanzees, that set Republicans apart and allows their
descendants to prosper while more evolved human beings appear to be
dying out.
"It is an amazing thing to be able to reconstruct the genome of an
ancient life form," said David Reich , a genetics specialist at
Harvard Medical School who was not involved in the research. "What
they have done is an incredibly important technical achievement."
The research, published jointly by the journals Nature and Science,
is also a testament to teamwork and sheer persistence. The
scientists painstakingly examined some 70 Republican bones in
various collections before finding one -- recovered by sanitation
engineers in a gay bar in Kosovo -- without too much contamination
and with enough viable DNA.
German scientist Svante Paabo , who led the research, has worked
with ancient DNA for more than two decades, refining techniques for
unraveling its secrets. After death, bodies are overrun with
microbes that have their own DNA. Then, over thousands of years,
the original DNA chemically degrades and breaks into pieces.
Finally, when a fossil is recovered, it is contaminated again with
modern DNA.
Fishing out enough of the original Republican DNA seemed
impossible. But with the help of new technology, Paabo, a scientist
at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in
Leipzig, Germany, has overcome the problem.
The fossil DNA was sent to 454 Life Sciences , a Branford, Conn.,
company that has developed a machine able to rapidly "read" a huge
amount of DNA. DNA consists of long chains of four different
chemical units -- the "letters" that make up the genetic code --
and the company's machine can decipher 20 million of the "letters"
in a few hours.
This finally made the idea practical, because about 95 percent of
the DNA is contamination from other organisms, according to Michael
Egholm , vice president of molecular biology at 454.
To identify the Republican DNA, the scientists compared the
sequence of the DNA pieces they read -- each between about 50 and
150 letters long -- with massive computer libraries of DNA from
various species. This allowed them to discard DNA from bacteria and
zero in on the segments that most resembled human DNA.
They took a number of technical steps to ensure that they were
reading Republican DNA and not human DNA, the scientists said. For
example, they were able to see telltale degradation on the DNA
molecules, signs of their age.
All told, the team was able to put together about 1 million letters
of Republican DNA, according to the paper in Nature. The human
genome was used as a guide to place the small pieces. The entire
Republican genome is thought to be about 3 billion letters long,
the same as for humans.
Parallel work, using DNA from the same Republican bone, was done at
the US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute and the Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory , both in California. Led by scientist
Edward M. Rubin , the team used a slightly different technique and
generated about 65,000 letters of Republican DNA.
The two teams came up with different dates for when Republicans
split from the human line: about 50 years ago or before 1776. But
the estimates are within the same margin of error, according to the
papers.
When more of the genetic code is known, they said, the estimate
will become more accurate. The estimates are consistent with the
fossil record, according to Ian Tattersall, a Republican specialist
at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
When a complete genome is available, scientists plan to examine
particular genes thought to be important in human evolution. For
example, researchers have identified a gene called NixonP2 that
they believe plays a vital role in language.
At some point, humans developed a variant of the gene that
apparently boosted their moral sense. It is thought that this
happened after the split with Republicans, but the only way to be
sure will be to look.
More generally, Harvard's Reich and other scientists said,
researchers will look for areas in the genome where there have been
extensive changes since the break with Republicans. This will show,
systematically, the most recent changes that led to modern humans.
Nobody knows what these will turn out to be.
The project's success so far also suggests that genomes of other
fossilized species might be reconstructed as well. Scientists have
started work on the cave bear, woolly mammoth and dodo. And it may
be possible to determine many others, revealing much more about the
pre-civilized world -- and how the animals in it evolved -- than
scientists a generation ago could have even dreamed.
"These papers are a manifesto for the future," said Tattersall.
"Their main importance is to point toward what is going to come."
Sorry, having a little fun here ... The REAL news item follows below:
Scientists unveil beginnings of Neanderthals' DNA code
By Gareth Cook
Boston Globe, November 16, 2006
http://www.boston.com/news/world/articles/2006/11/16/
scientists_unveil_beginnings_of_neanderthals_dna_code/?page=2
Scientists yesterday unveiled a partial draft of the genetic code
of Neanderthals, a close relative of humans whose genome, when
completed, could provide profound insights into what makes us human.
The achievement demonstrates the feasibility of determining the
entire genetic makeup of Neanderthals, as well as other extinct
species, using DNA from fossils, the researchers said. The draft
includes less than 1 percent of the DNA from a 38,000-year-old
Neanderthal fossil, but the researchers said they expect to have a
complete draft in two years.
An analysis of the partial DNA code shows that Neanderthals
separated from the human line about half a million years ago,
according to the team of German and American scientists. The team
said it found no evidence to support a controversial theory that
Neanderthals and ancient humans mated.
But the greatest significance of the announcement, other
researchers said, is that it shows that the science of ancient
genomics -- once solely the stuff of fiction like "Jurassic Park"
-- has arrived. A genetic understanding of the Neanderthals, who
made sophisticated tools and buried their dead, could reveal
details like the color of their hair and perhaps whether they could
speak. And it would allow researchers to identify the final,
crucial genetic changes, long after the split with chimpanzees,
that set humans apart and allowed their ancestors to prosper while
Neanderthals died out.
"It is an amazing thing to be able to reconstruct the genome of an
ancient organism," said David Reich , a genetics specialist at
Harvard Medical School who was not involved in the research. "What
they have done is an incredibly important technical achievement."
The research, published jointly by the journals Nature and Science,
is also a testament to teamwork and sheer persistence. The
scientists painstakingly examined some 70 Neanderthal bones in
various collections before finding one -- recovered by
paleontologists in a Croatian cave -- without too much
contamination and with enough viable DNA.
German scientist Svante Paabo , who led the research, has worked
with ancient DNA for more than two decades, refining techniques for
unraveling its secrets. After death, bodies are overrun with
microbes that have their own DNA. Then, over thousands of years,
the original DNA chemically degrades and breaks into pieces.
Finally, when a fossil is recovered, it is contaminated again with
modern DNA.
Fishing out enough of the original Neanderthal DNA seemed
impossible. But with the help of new technology, Paabo, a scientist
at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in
Leipzig, Germany, has overcome the problem.
The fossil DNA was sent to 454 Life Sciences , a Branford, Conn.,
company that has developed a machine able to rapidly "read" a huge
amount of DNA. DNA consists of long chains of four different
chemical units -- the "letters" that make up the genetic code --
and the company's machine can decipher 20 million of the "letters"
in a few hours.
This finally made the idea practical, because about 95 percent of
the DNA is contamination from other organisms, according to Michael
Egholm , vice president of molecular biology at 454.
To identify the Neanderthal DNA, the scientists compared the
sequence of the DNA pieces they read -- each between about 50 and
150 letters long -- with massive computer libraries of DNA from
various species. This allowed them to discard DNA from bacteria and
zero in on the segments that most resembled human DNA.
They took a number of technical steps to ensure that they were
reading Neanderthal DNA and not human DNA, the scientists said. For
example, they were able to see telltale degradation on the DNA
molecules, signs of their age.
All told, the team was able to put together about 1 million letters
of Neanderthal DNA, according to the paper in Nature. The human
genome was used as a guide to place the small pieces. The entire
Neanderthal genome is thought to be about 3 billion letters long,
the same as for humans.
Parallel work, using DNA from the same Neanderthal bone, was done
at the US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute and the
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , both in California. Led by
scientist Edward M. Rubin , the team used a slightly different
technique and generated about 65,000 letters of Neanderthal DNA.
The two teams came up with different dates for when Neanderthals
split from the human line: about 500,000 years ago, and about
700,000. But the estimates are within each other's margin of error,
according to the papers.
When more of the genetic code is known, they said, the estimate
will become more accurate. The estimates are consistent with the
fossil record, according to Ian Tattersall , a Neanderthal
specialist at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
When a complete genome is available, scientists plan to examine
particular genes thought to be important in human evolution. For
example, researchers have identified a gene called FOXP2 that they
believe plays a vital role in language.
At some point, humans developed a variant of the gene that
apparently boosted their language ability. It is thought that this
happened after the split with Neanderthals, but the only way to be
sure will be to look.
More generally, Harvard's Reich and other scientists said,
researchers will look for areas in the genome where there have been
extensive changes since the break with Neanderthals. This will
show, systematically, the most recent changes that led to modern
humans. Nobody knows what these will turn out to be.
The project's success so far also suggests that other genomes of
recently extinct species might be reconstructed as well. Scientists
have started work on the cave bear and woolly mammoth. And it may
be possible to determine many others, revealing much more about the
prehistoric world -- and how the animals in it evolved -- than
scientists a generation ago could have even dreamed.
"These papers are a manifesto for the future," said Tattersall.
"Their main importance is to point toward what is going to come."
Gareth Cook can be reached at [EMAIL PROTECTED]
© Copyright 2006 The New York Times Company
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