>X-Sender: [EMAIL PROTECTED] >Mime-Version: 1.0 >Date: Sat, 12 Feb 2000 22:02:05 -0500 >To: [EMAIL PROTECTED] >From: Tim Rourke <[EMAIL PROTECTED]> >Subject: Historical Context of the Work Ethic A >X-MIME-Autoconverted: from quoted-printable to 8bit by >dijkstra.uwaterloo.ca id VAA05642 >Sender: [EMAIL PROTECTED] >Precedence: bulk > >http://www.coe.uga.edu/~rhill/workethic/hist.htm >Home Page > >Historical Context of the Work Ethic > >Roger B. Hill, Ph.D. > >© 1992, 1996 > >>From a historical perspective, the cultural norm placing a positive >moral value on doing a good job because work has intrinsic value for its >own sake was a relatively recent development (Lipset, 1990). Work, for >much of the ancient history of the human race, has been hard and >degrading. Working hard--in the absence of compulsion--was not the norm >for Hebrew, classical, or medieval cultures (Rose, 1985). It was not >until the Protestant Reformation that physical labor became culturally >acceptable for all persons, even the wealthy. > > > >Attitudes Toward Work During the Classical Period > >One of the significant influences on the culture of the western world >has been the Judeo-Christian belief system. Growing awareness of the >multicultural dimensions of contemporary society has moved educators to >consider alternative viewpoints and perspectives, but an understanding >of western thought is an important element in the understanding of the >history of the United States. > >Traditional Judeo-Christian beliefs state that sometime after the dawn >of creation, man was placed in the Garden of Eden "to work it and take >care of it" (NIV, 1973, Genesis 2:15). What was likely an ideal work >situation was disrupted when sin entered the world and humans were >ejected from the Garden. Genesis 3:19 described the human plight from >that time on. "By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until >you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are >and to dust you will return" (NIV, 1973). Rose stated that the Hebrew >belief system viewed work as a "curse devised by God explicitly to >punish the disobedience and ingratitude of Adam and Eve" (1985, p. 28). >Numerous scriptures from the Old Testament in fact supported work, not >from the stance that there was any joy in it, but from the premise that >it was necessary to prevent poverty and destitution (NIV; 1973; Proverbs >10:14, Proverbs 13:4, Proverbs 14:23, Proverbs 20:13, Ecclesiastes >9:10). > >The Greeks, like the Hebrews, also regarded work as a curse (Maywood, >1982). According to Tilgher (1930), the Greek word for work was ponos, >taken from the Latin poena, which meant sorrow. Manual labor was for >slaves. The cultural norms allowed free men to pursue warfare, >large-scale commerce, and the arts, especially architecture or sculpture >(Rose, 1985). > >Mental labor was also considered to be work and was denounced by the >Greeks. The mechanical arts were deplored because they required a person >to use practical thinking, "brutalizing the mind till it was unfit for >thinking of truth" (Tilgher, 1930, p. 4). Skilled crafts were accepted >and recognized as having some social value, but were not regarded as >much better than work appropriate for slaves. Hard work, whether due to >economic need or under the orders of a master, was disdained. > >It was recognized that work was necessary for the satisfaction of >material needs, but philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle made it >clear that the purpose for which the majority of men labored was "in >order that the minority, the élite, might engage in pure exercises of >the mind--art, philosophy, and politics" (Tilgher, 1930, p. 5). Plato >recognized the notion of a division of labor, separating them first into >categories of rich and poor, and then into categories by different kinds >of work, and he argued that such an arrangement could only be avoided by >abolition of private property (Anthony, 1977). Aristotle supported the >ownership of private property and wealth. He viewed work as a corrupt >waste of time that would make a citizen's pursuit of virtue more di >fficult (Anthony, 1977). > >Braude (1975) described the Greek belief that a person's prudence, >morality, and wisdom was directly proportional to the amount of leisure >time that person had. A person who worked, when there was no need to do >so, would run the risk of obliterating the distinction between slave and >master. Leadership, in the Greek state and culture, was based on the >work a person didn't have to do, and any person who broke this cultural >norm was acting to subvert the state itself. > >The Romans adopted much of their belief system from the culture of the >Greeks and they also held manual labor in low regard (Lipset, 1990). The >Romans were industrious, however, and demonstrated competence in >organization, administration, building, and warfare. Through the empire >that they established, the Roman culture was spread through much of the >civilized world during the period from c500 BC until c117 AD (Webster >Encyclopedia, 1985). The Roman empire spanned most of Europe, the Middle >East, Egypt, and North Africa and greatly influenced the Western culture >in which the theoretical constructs underlying this study were >developed. > >Slavery had been an integral part of the ancient world prior to the >Roman empire, but the employment of slaves was much more widely utilized >by the Romans than by the Greeks before them (Anthony, 1977). Early on >in the Roman system, moderate numbers of slaves were held and they were >treated relatively well. As the size of landholdings grew, however, >thousands of slaves were required for large-scale grain production on >some estates, and their treatment grew worse. Slaves came to be viewed >as cattle, with no rights as human beings and with little hope of ever >being freed. In fact, in some instances cattle received greater care >than slaves, since cattle were not as capable of caring for themselves >as were slaves (Anthony, 1977). > >For the Romans, work was to be done by slaves, and only two occupations >were suitable for a free man--agriculture and big business (Maywood, >1982). A goal of these endeavors, as defined by the Roman culture, was >to achieve an "honorable retirement into rural peace as a country >gentleman" (Tilgher, 1930, p. 8). Any pursuit of handicrafts or the >hiring out of a person's arms was considered to be vulgar, dishonoring, >and beneath the dignity of a Roman citizen. > >Philosophically, both the Greeks and the Romans viewed the work that >slaves performed and the wealth that free men possessed as a means to >achieve the supreme ideal of life--man's independence of external >things, self-sufficiency, and satisfaction with one's self (Tilgher, >1930). Although work was something that would degrade virtue, wealth was >not directly related to virtue except in the matter of how it was used. >The view of Antisthenes that wealth and virtue were incompatible and the >view of the Stoics that wealth should be pursued for the purpose of >generosity and social good represented extremes of philosophical >thought. The most accepted view was that pursuit of gain to meet normal >needs was appropriate. > >>From the perspective of a contemporary culture, respect for workers upon >whom the economic structure of a nation and a society rested would have >been logical for the Greeks and the Romans, but no such respect was >evident. Even free men, who were not privileged to be wealthy and were >obliged to work along side slaves, were not treated with any sense of >gratitude, but were held in contempt. The cultural norms of the >classical era regarding work were in stark contrast to the work ethic of >the latter day. > > > >Attitudes Toward Work During the Medieval Period > >The fall of the Roman empire marked the beginning of a period generally >known as the Middle Ages. During this time, from c400 AD until c1400 AD, >Christian thought dominated the culture of Europe (Braude, 1975). Woven >into the Christian conceptions about work, however, were Hebrew, Greek, >and Roman themes. Work was still perceived as punishment by God for >man's original sin, but to this purely negative view was added the >positive aspect of earnings which prevented one from being reliant on >the charity of others for the physical needs of life (Tilgher, 1930). >Wealth was recognized as an opportunity to share with those who might be >less fortunate and work which produced wealth therefore became >acceptable. > >Early Christian thought placed an emphasis on the shortness of time >until the second coming of Christ and the end of the world. Any >attachment to physical things of the world or striving to accumulate >excessive wealth was frowned upon. As time passed and the world did not >end, the Christian church began to turn its attention to social >structure and the organization of the believers on earth. Monasteries >were formed where monks performed the religious and intellectual work of >the church (reading, copying manuscripts, etc.), but lay people tended >to the manual labor needed to supply the needs of the community. People >who were wealthy were expected to meet their own needs, but to give the >excess of their riches to charity. Handicraft, farming, and small scale >commerce were acceptable for people of moderate means, but receiving >interest for money loaned, charging more than a "just" price, and big >business were not acceptable (Tilgher, 1930). > >As was the case for the Greeks and the Romans, social status within the >medieval culture was related to the work a person did. Aristotelianism >was also evident in the system of divine law taught by the Catholic >church during this time (Anthony, 1977). A hierarchy of professions and >trades was developed by St. Thomas Aquinas as part of his encyclopedic >consideration of all things human and divine (Tilgher, 1930). >Agriculture was ranked first, followed by the handicrafts and then >commerce. These were considered to be the work of the world, however, >and the work of the church was in a higher category (Rose, 1985). The >ideal occupation was the monastic life of prayer and contemplation of >God (Braude, 1975; Tilgher, 1930). Whether as a cleric or in some >worldly occupation, each person embarked on a particular work course as >a result of the calling of God, and it was the duty of a worker to >remain in his class, passing on his family work from father to son. > >In the culture of the medieval period, work still held no intrinsic >value. The function of work was to meet the physical needs of one's >family and community, and to avoid idleness which would lead to sin >(Tilgher, 1930). Work was a part of the economic structure of human >society which, like all other things, was ordered by God. >
