The Goa Inquisition: when FACT creates Fiction
Alan Machado
alan.macha...@gmail.com
The subject of the Goa Inquisition appears to rise like a
bubble from murky waters every few years. Being in the
process of writing a book on the subject, I have accessed a
vast amount of primary and secondary sources. Also, I have
found a lot of misinformation unsupported by verifiable
historical content being propagated as historical fact for a
variety of reasons. This sadly is the case with an
'exhibition' about the Goa Inquisition entitled Goa
Inquisition -- The Epitome of Christian Missionary Violence
floated recently on the internet by a group with the acronym
FACT (Foundation for Advancement of Cultural Ties).
From the point of view of serious historical
research, I found this 'exhibition' disturbing for
its numerous factual gaffes, misconceptions, and
distortions. However, these can mislead people who
do not have any background reading about the Goa
Inquisition. Those who seek and take the trouble
to learn more, like you, deserve better.
Readers may access FACT for fiction; here I intend to
highlight some facts, with citations for those who wish to
pursue the subject further. For clarity, I have used
quotation marks for statements made by FACT.
Fiction: "Most Indians believe that Goa was settled by
Portuguese. This is what the history textbooks have taught
them."
Fact: This statement undermines the intelligence of Indians.
History books state that Goa, rather Tiswadi, a small part of
present-day Goa, was captured by the Portuguese in 1510,
obviously from people who had already settled Goa.
Fiction: Albuquerque encouraged mixed marriages which "formed
the race that has become known as Luso-Indians and later as
Goans."
Fact: The policy was abandoned on the king's orders
almost immediately after it was initiated. Goa has
a complex population structure composed of Gaudes,
Kunbis and Velips, Bandaris, Sudras, Chardos, and
Bamons, all of whom descend from people who had
settled Goa long, long before the arrival of the
Portuguese.
Fiction: The Inquisition was "basically a holocaust inflicted
on the Indian people."
Fact: Eighty years after the people of Goa had been
exposed to the activities of the Inquisition, in
1642, the ganvkars of Salcete petitioned the king
to use the Inquisition to investigate and punish
corrupt officials as there was no one else who
could do it without fearing reprisals (deSouza, T.
Medeival Goa, 2009:196). Clearly they saw the
Inquisition as a powerful and fearless corrective
engine of justice. This opinion, coming from
perhaps Salcete's most influential community,
speaks volumes on how contemporary Goans viewed the
Inquisition.
Fiction: The Goa Inquisition reported to the Pope in Rome
Fact: It reported to the King of Portugal. Inquisitors were
appointed by the king. The viceroy and State officials, all
appointed by the king, were present at the public auto da fe.
These were ceremonies primarily devoted to the reconciliation
of convicted persons through the process of abjuration, and
the relaxation of the very few who were condemned as
obstinate, dogmatic, and irreconcilable heretics to the
secular arm.
Each offender was given into the care of a familiar, a member
of Goa's Portuguese elite. The tolling of church bells urged
people to witness the ceremony conducted in churches or the
Terreiro da Sabayo, the great square enclosed by the Palace
of the Inquisition, the Se Cathedral, the Senate House, and
the Rua Direita. The Inquisition carried out the
investigation and passed sentence; civil authority executed
the sentence.
Fiction: Francis Xavier laid the foundation of the Goa
Inquisition
Fact: The Goa Inquisition was established in 1560,
eight years after Xavier's death. Xavier arrived
in Goa in 1542. He stayed there for just a few
months before moving to the Tamil Nadu coast and
then further east into Asia. From the Moluccas, he
wrote to the king in 1546 asking him to establish
the Inquisition as a means of containing the
growing influence of Jews, New Christians (Iberian
Christians of Jewish ancestry), and Muslims in
Portugal's fortresses in Asia, all perceived as a
security threat to both State and Christianity.
The decision to send the Goa Inquisition was not
taken lightly, but took years of debate and a long
tussle between pro- and anti-Inquisition policy
makers in Lisbon.
Fiction: The Inquisition used the terms "Hindu" and "Muslim"
for non-Christians
Fact: These terms never appear in an Inquisition document.
They are of later origin. The Inquisition used the terms
gentio (translated as 'Hindu' today) and mouro (Muslim). It
also classified people according to their caste, profession,
or nationality.
Fiction: The reason for establishing the Inquisition was to
persecute Hindus
Fact: The list of those convicted in the first 40
years of the Goa Inquisition's existence clearly
shows who were most prosecuted in the early years.
Of the 1,582 convicted, 45.2% were convicted for
offenses related to Judaism and Islam. These
details were compiled by Inquisitor Joao Delgado
Figueira in 1623 and are available in Lisbon's
National Library.
Fiction: The majority of those prosecuted were Hindus
Fact: Out of 5,108 individuals who appeared in 61 auto da fes
between 1650 and 1801 that I have analysed, 70% were
Christians. The majority of Hindus prosecuted were from the
Northern Province, not Goa proper. Further, their numbers
increased dramatically during in early 18th century when the
region came under increasing military pressure from the Marathas.
Fiction: All Hindus opposed the Inquisition
Fact: A petition to the king by prominent gentios
contradicts this. It accepted that "as a Christian
prince" the king could make no concessions in
allowing the public performance of their ceremonies
as it would impede the propagation of Christianity
and should punish transgressors. It asked that the
Inquisition should not take cognition of
denunciations made by fellow gentios as this could
only be a result of personal enmity (Priolkar, A.
The Goa Inquisition, 1961: 111-2). Hindus had
therefore accepted such laws, restrictive and
targeted as they were, as a condition for being
allowed to remain and conduct a profitable
business, but were now being targeted by fellow
gentios out of spite, jealousy, and hatred.
Fiction: The Inquisition burned people in large numbers
Fact: The 61 auto da fe lists reveal 39 were burnt
in the flesh and 49 in effigy (i.e.a statue
resembling the person), together constituting 1.72%
of the total. All the burnt were convicted as
relapsed heretics or for sodomy. In comparison,
between April 15-October 15, 1804, 115 widows were
burnt in the sati ritual within thirty miles round
Calcutta. A similar figure for 1803 was 275
(Buchanan, Claudius. Christian Researches in
India. London 1812). The Portuguese banned sati
in Goa.
Fiction: The Inquisition prosecuted people for being Hindus
Fact: It prosecuted those Hindus who were seen to be breaking
laws, however unjust they appear today, that forbade the
public practice of Hindu rites and hindering the Inquisition
in its operations. Its objectives were to root out heresy.
By definition, heresy was a crime that could only be
committed by a Christian. Under Roman law, which influenced
European civil and ecclesiastical laws, heresy was viewed as
treason. In England, during the time the Goa Inquisition was
in existence, men were hanged, drawn, and quartered, and
women burned for treason. The Inquisition handed over
obstinate heretics to civil authority to carry out the
sentence, usually death by fire.
Fiction: Hindus were burnt in large numbers
Fact: In the 61 auto da fe lists, not one
non-Christian was burned. The reason is simple:
burning was reserved only for relapsed heretics
totally beyond redemption. Non-Christians were
punished with prison terms and labour in the
polvara or galleys, exile, and fines. It makes the
Inquisition appear as a recruiting agent of free
labour for the government.
Fiction: All Inquisitional records have been burnt
Fact: During the Maratha invasion of Goa in 1739, the records
were sent to Mormugao Fort for safe-keeping. When the
Inquisition was abolished in 1774, an inventory was made, and
the records sent to Lisbon. They were returned in 1779 after
the reinstatement of the Inquisition.
When it was finally banned in 1812, some records were burnt
and some sent to Rio de Janeiro. Some may still be in Goa.
Archives and libraries still preserve a number of documents.
For instance, the Lisbon archive preserves an inventory list
of the processes conducted by the Goa Inquisition from 1561
to 1774 and details of more than 60 auto da fe. These
identify names, nationalities, castes, professions, numbers,
offences, relationships, and sentences.
Those investigated included Portuguese, other Europeans,
Africans, Asians, priests, Indians of many castes,
professions and religions, slaves, soldiers and others.
Offences related to practising non-Christian practices in
Portuguese territories, heresy, bigamy, sodomy, etc. Some
were absolved. Most were sentenced to prison, polvara, or
galleys, together with spiritual penances and religious
instruction. The inventory also lists a large number of
books, notebooks, and records.
Fiction: Hindus abandoned Goa in large numbers because of
persecution.
Fact: An estimate of how many actually emigrated
can be derived from the 1801 census of Kanara
(Buchanan, Francis. A Journey from Madras...,
1807: 5-8). The numbers for Konkani speakers
excluding Christians was 18,615. Assuming a
population growth rate of 1% per annum, it gives us
a figure of 1,685 if all the emigration had
occurred in 1560. These numbers would have to be
enhanced to account for emigrations to other regions.
Fiction: Christian converts did not emigrate from Goa
Fact: The same census found 10,877 (2,545 households)
Christians of Goan extract in South Kanara. North Kanara had
476 households, about 2,034 individuals. About 5,000 were
living outside Kanara. This population survived Tipu's
Captivity (1784-99). The pre-Captivity numbers are estimated
at around 50,000. This is roughly 20% of the combined
Goa-Kanara Christian population (Goa 185,824 in 1779)
(Machado, A. Slaves of Sultans, Goa 1556, 2015).
Fiction: Hindus had a minor role in Goa's economy
Fact: On the contrary, they exerted a powerful hold
on Goa's economy with resources, acute financial
acumen, and a business and trading network that
extended beyond Goa's borders. Priolkar cites a
1738 observation that "the main commerce of this
land is wholly dominated by the Hindus"
(Priolkar.1961: 139). This continued till the
closing years of Portuguese rule when business
houses owned by Hindus received great encouragement
and incentives from the Portuguese to bolster a
flagging economy in a desperate move to hinder
Goa's road to independence.
Fiction: Hindus had no financial transactions with the
Inquisition
Fact: A 1774 architectural plan shows a number of storerooms
on the ground floor of the Palace of the Inquisition with the
legend that they were rented out to the gentios from the very
beginning. This building was located on prime real estate,
adjacent to the main road, Rua Direita, and the auction
grounds, the Leilao.
Clearly, these gentios, rather than fleeing "the city in
large numbers," accumulated wealth and privilege by remaining
in Goa, and even provided financial support in the form of
rents to the Inquisition in the interests of their businesses
Fiction: Christians commanded more respect than Hindus
Fact: The privileged status of wealthy gentios in Goa is seen
in a remark by a Christian convert that Portuguese officials
offered a seat to a gentio when he entered his room (de
Souza, T. 1009:196). As one whose ancestors were Goan, I
feel a sense of pride that a section of the Goan community
could extract such recognition from an occupying power, but
not how Christians were treated; they were left standing.
Fiction: Goan priests were given great privileges
Fact: The Inquisition prosecuted over 200 priests
and friars, Europeans and Indians, for various
offences, mainly associated with doctrine and
heresy. The 1787 revolt was planned by Goan
priests 70 years before the first war for Indian
independence (Mutiny). Among the 55 persons
implicated there were 54 Christians; 19 were
priests (Cunha Rivara. Goa and the Revolt of 1787,
New Delhi 1996: 26-7).
Fiction: The Goa Inquisition tortured people indiscriminately
Fact: Torture was used in rare cases to extract confessions
from persons who were considered obstinate. This was as per
prevailing practice in European civil courts. Torture was
not something devised by the Inquisition and used by it
exclusively.
I have two architectural plans of the Palace of the
Inquisition of the seventeenth and eighteenth century.
Neither of them labels any room as a torture chamber. This,
however, does not mean there was no such room. Further, the
plans do not show any dungeons.
Fiction: The Goa Inquisition got its bad name because of the
"atrocities" it committed
Fact: This is partly a fault of the Inquisition for
clothing its operations in a veil of mystery and
secrecy. Its efficiency and network of informants
added to this. The major reason, however, is a
result of a very successful propaganda campaign
undertaken by Protestant countries, especially
England and the Netherlands who fought a long
debilitating war with Spain.
Denigrating the Inquisition and depicting it as an epitome of
terror and injustice served the purpose of delegitimizing
Spain's claim to being leaders of a Christian world. Jews,
persecuted in and expelled from Spain, contributed to such
propaganda.
England's propaganda campaign was brought to India
by Claudius Buchanan and promoted by Protestants,
rivals of Catholic Portuguese in converting India's
"heathen" soul to Christianity. This was at a time
when British forces had occupied Goa as a
precaution against possible French aggression. The
theme was later taken by anti-Christian Indian
lobbies. One can see the result of their campaign
in the FACT 'exhibition'.
Fiction: Charles Dellon's book exposes "atrocities" of the
Goa Inquisition
Fact: Dellon's book is the only one written by a victim of
the Goa Inquisition. He appeared at the 1676 auto da fe,
served part of his sentence in the galleys, and eventually
gained freedom. His book added fuel to the Protestant
propaganda war and had many reprints. In India, it forms a
considerable part of Priolkar's book.
Dellon's case needs to be considered in the context
of Portuguese-French rivalry in India from the
second half of the seventeenth century, especially
in Mylapore. It is from here that the French
priest Efraim de Neves was abducted and taken to
Goa for trial by the Inquisition. He was acquitted
in 1650. Both arrests sent a clear message to the
French that even if Portugal could not counter the
French power militarily, it could use power
bestowed by religion which the French, being
Catholics, could not easily challenge. The motives
of the Goa Inquisition in serving Portugal's
political interest needs to be studied.
I strongly sympathise with Dellon, who, despite his rigorous
treatment, had this to say: "I do not pretend to censure the
Inquisition itself; I am even willing to admit that the
institution may be good" (Dellon, C. Dellon's Account of the
Inquisition at Goa, 1815: 1812: 2).
The 'exhibition' pictures
The 'exhibition' is limited to 28 pictures and a text. Only
five pictures, like much of the text, directly relate to
Inquisitional activity. Here are comments on some pictures.
It is too tedious to comment on all, especially as most of
them have no direct relevance to the Goa Inquisition.
Picture 1: Portuguese soldiers had East Asian facial features
and wore Chinese style hats
Fact: Not true. They were Europeans.
Picture 2: "Portuguese King Manuel I sent Vasco da Gama to
India in 1498"
Fact: Vasco da Gama sailed from Lisbon on July 8, 1497
Picture 3: "The tolerant King of Vijaynagara Veer Narsingh
allowed the Portuguese to Propagate Christianity in his
Empire"
Fact: Vira Narasimha ruled from 1490 to 1509.
Impressed by Portuguese naval power, and seeking an
ally against his powerful neighbour, Bijapur, in
1505 he sent an embassy to meet Viceroy Almeida in
Cannanore. Another reason was that the Portuguese
controlled the import of horses, vital for
Vijayanagara's cavalry, from Persia and Arabia.
The historian Castenhada even suggests Vira Narasimha
proposed an alliance offering his only sister in marriage to
the Portuguese prince. One of Vijayanagara's naval
commanders, Thimmayya, based in Honavar, joined Albuquerque
in the capture of Goa in 1510. The Portuguese did not have
enough priests to "Propagate Christianity in his Empire." The
first priest to visit the Vijayanagara court was Fr Louis
Salvador in 1510 when Krishna Deva Raya was the ruler. There is
no record of any conversions in Vijayanagara during Vira
Narasimha's reign. Vijayanagara fell to an alliance led by
Bijapur in 1565.
Picture 8: "The Portuguese conquered Goa in 1510 A.D. All
the Mosques in Goa were destroyed by them."
Fact: Safa Masjid, built in 1560 by Ibrahim Adil Shah
in Ponda, Surla Taar of the same period, and Namazgah Mosque,
built by Prince Akbar in 1683, still stand. (Government of
Goa website)
Picture 12: "St. Francis Xavier addressing soldiers that it
is his first duty to convert all mankind into Christianity by
convenience or by using force."
Fact: Nothing of this sort is found in the numerous letters
Xavier wrote.
Picture 15: "Hindu marriages were forbidden in Portuguese
territories. Hindus had to pay 1000 Xeraphins (Portuguese
currency) for each marriage ceremony."
Fact: If Hindu marriages were forbidden, the
question of payment would not have arisen. The
amount quoted is ridiculously large. In 1742, for
instance, soldiers were paid 6 xerafins per month
(Cunha Rivara, 243). If Hindu marriages were
banned, one might ask a legitimate question: how
did the Hindu population grow? The law forbade the
public performance of Hindu marriages to avoid
temptations to converts. Marriages in private and
in certain places were allowed.
End comment
The interaction between an occupying power and subject people
has always been complex, flexible, and changeable with time.
It is peppered by wars and repression, conciliation and
adjustment, rejection and absorption. The same is the case
with Goa; it cannot be expressed in the stark terms of
conqueror and conquered, the imposition of an alien culture
and religion, loot and rapine.
The arrival of the Portuguese in Goa threw three different
cultures into close interaction, cultures in which the social
elite expressed their dominance in very different ways: the
supreme creator Brahma, gave birth to the Brahmins from his
mouth, the Kshatriyas from his shoulders, the Vaishyas from
his thighs and Shudras from his feet. (Manu's code I-31)
Religion and kingship are two brothers, and neither can
dispense with the other. Religion is the foundation of
kingship, and kingship protects religion. --Ibn Miskawayh,
10th-century Persian historian. Cujus regio, illius religio
(whose realm, his religion) --guiding principle adopted at
Augsburg, Germany 1555
There were more, those of Kunbis, Gauddes, Velips
and others. It is out of this soup, compounded by
political and economic rivalry with neighbouring
kingdoms that modern Goa has emerged. The process
imposed much trauma and pain on our forefathers.
Some adapted by adopting a new religion; some
adjusted by retaining their ancestral religion but
reaching an accommodation; some emigrated with
their wealth; some, like my ancestors emigrated
after adopting the new religion but leaving their
wealth behind because by the time they left it had
all disappeared under the burden of increased
taxation, war, and extreme hardship.
As an Indian of Goan ancestry, the domination of Goa's
economy by Goan Hindus makes me proud. My pride, however,
suffers a setback when I ponder on how it helped the
Portuguese remain in Goa for 450 years. The absurdity of
placing this Goan-Portuguese encounter in a religious light
is brought out by many similar interactions. I will
highlight one.
Portuguese Goa always suffered from food shortages and
famines. Food was imported from Kanara and other places in
considerable volume. The English traveller Fryer observed
the Portuguese navy protecting 200 boats loaded with rice
sailing from Kanara to Goa. There were many such convoys.
They carried rice grown by Hindus in Kanara in
boats owned and manned by Hindus to feed Christians
in Goa. The boats were guarded by the Portuguese
(Christian) navy from attack by Hindu pirates
operating off the Kanara coast. The trade was
conducted by Hindu traders. Where does Hindu and
Christian come in all this? It was just plain and
simple trade and commerce in which Hindu and
Christian, Portuguese, Goan, and people from Kanara
were partners.
Let me end these comments with a forceful assertion: I am no
apologist for the Inquisition. To have an organisation from
a foreign country establish itself in my homeland and pass
judgement and punish my fellow countrymen, perhaps some of my
ancestors, on the basis of a law originating elsewhere, is a
deep affront to my feelings as an Indian.
Yet, it is important to understand the nuances, the
circumstances, the forces under which such a situation arose.
To pass judgement otherwise especially on the basis of
deliberate misinformation will not only take our country on a
dangerous road, but is criminally offensive to the discipline
of historiography.
I pray that good sense and better scholarship prevails.
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