Friends, Sorry. In the text below, a small portion between "(11, 12)" and "(13)" appears garbled. The corresponding clear text -- covering a somewhat longer portion -- is: "The Vogtle nuclear plant being built in the state of Georgia, involving two AP1000 reactors designed to generate around 1,100 megawatts of electricity each, is currently estimated to cost nearly $35 billion (11,12). In 2011, when the utility building the reactor sought permission from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, it projected a total cost of $14 billion, and “in-service dates of 2016 and 2017” for the two units (13)."
Sukla On Fri, Apr 7, 2023, 08:33 Sukla Sen <sukla....@gmail.com> wrote: > > https://engage.aps.org/fps/resources/newsletters/april-2023#Articles > Infeasible: Nuclear Energy as a solution to Climate Change > > *M. V. Ramana, Professor and Simons Chair in Disarmament, Global and Human > Security, School of Public Policy and Global Affairs, University of British > Columbia, m.v.ram...@ubc.ca <m.v.ram...@ubc.ca>* > > Nuclear energy reached a major landmark in 2021. Its share of the total > electrical energy generated globally declined to below 10 percent, 9.8 > percent to be precise (1). That fraction is lower than it has been since at > least 1985, and around 45 percent lower than its peak in 1996, when nuclear > energy provided 17.5 percent of worldwide electricity fed into the grid. > The declining trend has been continuous and will likely continue. > > The declining trend might seem odd given all the talk one hears about > nuclear energy undergoing yet another "renaissance" or "resurgence" (2–4). > Although such claims were always questionable (5–7), they have propelled > enormous amounts of public and private capital going into nuclear power. > Further, this trend would seem doubly odd in the face of high-profile > assertions about the inevitability of nuclear energy to mitigating carbon > emissions (8–10). > > The key reason for the decline in the share of nuclear power is > economical: generating power with nuclear reactors is costly compared with > other low-carbon sources of energy, and the gap is widening. The second > reason for this decline is the very long time it takes to build a nuclear > reactor. > > Combined, these two trends imply that nuclear energy will not help solve > climate change. For nuclear energy to play a significant role in mitigating > climate change, its share of the electrical energy produced around the > world has to necessarily increase, as fossil fuels are replaced by uranium. > And the shift has to occur rapidly. Nuclear energy is simply not up to this > challenge. > > There is a separate and well-known set of reasons about why nuclear power > is not a desirable way to even trying to mitigate climate change: the > unavoidable risk of severe accidents, the inextricable connection to > nuclear weapons proliferation, and the inevitable production of hazardous > radioactive waste. Since nuclear power is incapable of contributing > significantly to mitigating climate change, expanding nuclear energy and > exacerbating these undesirable outcomes makes no sense. > > The economics of nuclear power > > Despite countries around the world investing vast amounts of money in > nuclear power, the technology continues to be economically uncompetitive. > Two separate cost problems afflict nuclear power. First, nuclear reactors > are extremely expensive to build. The Vogtle nuclear > > plant being built in the state of Georgia, involving two AP1000 reactors > designed to generate around 1,100 megawatts of electricity each, is > currently estimated to cost nearly 35billion(11,12).In2011,whentheutilityb > uildingthereactorsoughtpermissionfromtheNuclearRegulatoryCommission,itproj > ectedatotalcostof > 35�������(11,12).��2011,�ℎ���ℎ�����������������ℎ������������ℎ����������������ℎ����������������������������,�����������������������14 > billion, and “in-service dates of 2016 and 2017” for the two units (13). > > As of March 2023, neither unit has started operating. Westinghouse, the > company developing the design, originally projected a time period of three > years to construct each AP1000 reactor (14). Vogtle has exceeded that > projection by a factor of three. > > Vogtle is by no means the only delayed reactor. In Finland, building of > the Olkiluoto-3 European Pressurized reactor (EPR) started in August 2005; > its builders expected it to start operating in 2009, but it was first > connected to the grid only in 2022, a thirteen year delay (15). The story > of its sister EPR at Flamanville in France is similar. Although its > construction started two years later—and presumably the builders had some > time to learn from the experience in Finland—that reactor is now expected > to start operations in 2024, a dozen years after the expected 2012 (16). > Like Vogtle, its cost has escalated dramatically, from €3.2 billion to > €13.2 billion. > > These construction delays are occurring in United States, which has built > more reactors than any other country, and France, which has the highest > nuclear share in the world. In other words, these problems are not being > encountered by some neophyte country embarking on building its first > nuclear power plant. > > There is no reason to expect things will get better in the future. > Historical experience in the United States and France shows that nuclear > construction costs have typically gone up, not down, as more reactors are > built (17–20). Cost estimates of the European Pressurized reactors being > built at Hinkley Point in the United Kingdom are greater than the costs of > the Flamanville and Olkiluoto reactors; the estimated costs of the Russian > VVER reactors proposed for Turkey and Bangladesh are higher than the cost > of the first two Koodankulam reactors operating in India. > > The second cost problem afflicting nuclear power involve the high > operating expenses of nuclear reactors. These expenses do not include what > is involved in servicing the extremely high capital costs, and yet are high > enough to make nuclear energy uncompetitive with natural gas, solar, and > wind power. > > Over the last decade or so, this second cost problem has forced utilities > to shut down multiple old reactors despite having active operating licenses > (21–24). In the United States, 104 nuclear reactors were operating at the > end of 2010 (25). A decade later, in December 2020, that was down to 94 > (26). The number of operating reactors declined from 19 to 15 in the United > Kingdom; and from 10 to 6 reactors in Sweden. The nuclear fleet would be > even smaller but for governments shoveling exorbitant subsidies at > utilities owning nuclear plants, partly due to misguided beliefs about the > importance of nuclear power for mitigating climate change. But an > > equally important reason has been lobbying by the nuclear industry and its > supporters, as well as systemic corruption (27,28). > > Caption: Plot of trends in the cost of generating electricity (the > so-called Levelized Cost of Energy) from the 2022 World Nuclear Industry > Status Report (1) which is based on cost estimates reported by the Wall > Street advisory firm Lazard from 2009 to 2021. > > Nuclear power’s economic challenge is graphically shown in the figure > above, which is drawn using data presented in successive cost reports by > the Wall Street advisory firm Lazard (29,1). At nearly $170 per > megawatt-hour of electricity, generating nuclear power costs over four > times the corresponding figure for utility-scale solar and wind farms. > > The comparison between nuclear power and variable renewables like solar > and wind is complicated by the fact that the latter sources do not generate > power steadily, and depend on how much wind is blowing and whether the sun > is shining. But the very large cost differential between nuclear and > renewables should be more than enough to allow for complementary > technologies to compensate for variations in the outputs of solar and wind > farms (30). There is also a vast literature that explores how renewables > can support a reliable electrical grid provided suitable and affordable > options, such as energy efficiency, demand response, technological and > geographic diversity, and some storage, are incorporated (31). > > *The question of time * > > Nuclear reactors are not just expensive. They take a very long time to > construct. The average nuclear plant takes around a decade to go from when > the first concrete is poured on the ground to the first units of power > flowing into the grid (1). The requisite planning, getting permits, and > raising the billions of dollars in funding needed to construct a plant, > might take up to a decade too. > > Consider the case of Hinkley Point C in the United Kingdom where two EPRs > are being built at Hinkley Point. In 2008, the U.K. government issued a > White Paper that envisioned new reactors producing power by 2018, further > recommending Hinkley Point as where the first nuclear plant could be built > because it already had the requisite environmental clearances (32). In > reality, it was December 2018 by the time the first of the two EPRs began > to be built at Hinkley Point C; the second unit started being built in > December 2019. The currently projected start date for the first of the > reactors is 2027, with the cost estimate of the two EPR units touching $40 > billion (33). > > This is the case in the United Kingdom, which is very familiar with this > process. Over the decades, the country has built 45 power reactors. > Experience with nuclear power is not an advantage that many other countries > have. > > Although may propose to expand nuclear power to combat climate change, few > discuss where these new nuclear plants are to be built. For nuclear power > to contribute significantly to mitigating climate change, much of this new > nuclear capacity would have to be built in developing countries. These are > the countries that have fast expanding energy needs and growing > populations. But, few developing countries use nuclear energy. > > One of the few attempts at identifying a potential geographical > distribution of new nuclear reactors was the influential study published by > the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2003 (34). The MIT study > developed a scenario where nuclear power contributes significantly to > mitigating climate change by 2050 and came up with a hypothetical > allocation of new nuclear power plants to countries around the world. > > That scenario foresaw a number of countries like Algeria, Indonesia, > Malaysia, North Korea, the Philippines, Venezuela, and Vietnam all > acquiring their first nuclear power plants by 2050. Indonesia, for example, > would have to build up 39 gigawatts of nuclear capacity by 2050. To reach > that target, Indonesia should build around 25 large nuclear reactors like > the ones at Hinkley Point C or 35 reactors like the ones at Vogtle. Today, > two decades after the MIT report came out, Indonesia still has no operating > nuclear power plant; nor is one being built. > > There is a good reason why developing countries, despite a desire to build > nuclear capacity, have not built nuclear power plants in large numbers. > Financial resources for capital intensive projects are scarce in > cash-strapped developing countries, and nuclear plants are prohibitively > expensive. Nor should these countries be considering nuclear power, for it > is an expensive and inefficient way to deliver energy to the developing > world’s unserved people. > > Despite these reasons for foreswearing nuclear technology, perhaps many > developing countries might develop nuclear power plants after all. But that > is unrealistic within the next few decades. In April 2022, the > Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated that “global temperature > will stabilise when carbon dioxide emissions reach net zero. For 1.5°C > (2.7°F), this means achieving net zero carbon dioxide emissions globally in > the early 2050s” (35). > > In other words, to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, the world has to > stop emitting carbon dioxide, or find ways of absorbing the emitted carbon > dioxide, within three decades. Nuclear power’s track record and technical > constraints make it clear that it cannot play any significant role in > reaching this target. > > *Can new small modular nuclear reactor designs help? * > > When faced with these facts, some proponents of nuclear energy argue that > alternate nuclear reactor designs will solve the problems confronting > nuclear power. A particular focus has been on what are called Small Modular > (Nuclear) Reactors (SMRs). SMR designs typically have power levels between > 10 and 300 megawatts, much smaller than the 1,000–1,600 megawatt reactor > designs being built today (36). > > Nuclear proponents also talk about so-called advanced reactors, or > Generation IV nuclear energy systems, which are based on designs not > involving cooling by water: such designs include gas-cooled high > temperature reactors, sodium cooled fast neutron reactors, and molten salt > reactors cooled by, well, molten salts. Many of these reactor designs also > fit into the category of small modular reactors because they are intended > to produce less than 300 megawatts. > > First, let us discuss SMRs. Because SMRs produce less power, nuclear > advocates expect building these would cost less. Therefore, in principle, > smaller private companies and countries with smaller economic capacity > (i.e., GDP) can invest in nuclear power. While the lower total cost may > help deal with the first problem, the second problem becomes worse because > small reactors lose out on economies of scale. > > Larger reactors are cheaper on a per megawatt basis because their material > and work requirements do not scale linearly with power capacity. A general > rule of thumb followed in industrial engineering postulates a 0.6 power > relation between the capital cost and the size of the facility (37). All > else being equal, constructing a SMR designed to produce 200 megawatts > would cost around 40 percent of what it would cost to build a 1000 megawatt > reactor, whereas it would generate only 20 percent of the electricity. > Thus, the 200 megawatt SMR would have roughly twice the cost per kilowatt > of capacity, which directly translates into a higher cost per unit of > electricity generated. > > Cost estimates of SMRs under development offer evidence of higher per kW > costs. The UAMPS project involving six NuScale units proposed to be built > in Idaho is estimated to cost an eye-popping $9.3 billion for just 462 > megawatts of power capacity (38). That amounts to over > > $20,000 per kilowatt. In comparison to the Vogtle project in Georgia, when > that project was at a comparable stage—that is, when it was still on > paper—the estimate for the UAMPS project is around 250% more than the > initial per kilowatt cost of the Vogtle project. Of course, the Vogtle cost > has since exploded, but there is every reason to expect a similar fate for > the UAMPS project if and when construction starts. Even without such an > increase during construction, the NuScale SMR design is more expensive than > large reactors on a per kilowatt basis. > > SMR proponents have a counter argument: the lost economies of scale will > be compensated by savings through mass manufacture in factories and > resultant learning. But, for the price per kilowatt for a small reactor to > be comparable to large reactors, SMRs have to be manufactured by the > hundreds, maybe thousands, even under very optimistic assumptions about > rates of learning (36). If and when all those SMRs are manufactured, then, > perhaps, the cost per kilowatt of SMRs might match the cost per kilowatt of > large nuclear reactors. Even then, SMRs will only economically competitive > with the likes of the Vogtle nuclear plant, and generate power at costs > that are many times that of renewable sources of energy. > > Even that sombre outlook might be too optimistic for the real world where > multiple theoretical assumptions made by SMR developers will not hold. For > example, they assume that costs of nuclear power plants will decline as > more of these are built; but, in both the United States and France, costs > rose with time (19,20). The theoretical prerequisite for such learning is > that most reactor builders would choose a standardised design. But there > are currently dozens of SMR designs being developed around the world. This > makes it very unlikely that one, or even a few designs, will be chosen by > different countries and private companies. > > Building SMRs has also been subject to delays. Russia’s first SMR is the > KLT-40S, which is based on the design of reactors used in the > nuclear-powered icebreakers operated by Russia for decades. When > construction started in 2007, the KLT-40S reactor was expected to start > operating in October 2010. It began producing power a whole decade later, > in May 2020 (39). > > Even in the case of designs being developed, there are significant delays. > NuScale, the design closest to being deployed in the United States, has > gone from planning to first generate power in 2015-16 to the current > expectation that the first reactor will start producing power in 2029-30 > (40) > > Turning to the so-called advanced reactor designs, there is a long history > of reactor designs not based on standard light-water-reactor technology > being built around the world. And this history shows that these designs > will have a number of technical problems that make them unreliable for > electricity generation (41,42). > > When it was established in 2000, the Generation IV initiative’s aimed for > “commercial deployment by 2020–2030” (43). In 2018, the Generation IV forum > concluded that “readiness for commercial fleet deployment” might occur only > “around 2045 (for the first systems)” (44). The delay should not come as a > surprise: these designs are challenged by major technological problems. In > 2015, France’s Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN) > examined > > these challenges, concluding that “the SFR [Sodium‐cooled Fast Reactor] > system [is] the only one of the various nuclear systems considered by GIF > [Generation IV International Forum] to have reached a degree of maturity > compatible with the construction of a Generation IV reactor prototype > during the first half of the 21st century; such a realization, however, > requires the completion of studies and technological developments mostly > already identified” (45). > > But even sodium-cooled fast reactors are unlikely to be built quickly, and > there is a long history of delays, poor performance, and nagging problems > afflicting these designs (46). India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor > (PFBR) offers an illustration of the lengthy delays associated with even > new sodium cooled reactor designs. The government started planning to > building the PFBR in the early 1980s, after a quarter century of dreaming > about breeder reactors (47). In 2004, when the first concrete was poured, > the PFBR was expected to start operating in 2010. The reactor has been > delayed repeatedly and is now expected to start operating in 2024 (48). > > The bottom line is that new reactor designs, whether these are termed > small modular reactors or advanced reactors or Generation IV reactors, > cannot help nuclear power be deployed fast enough to meet the urgency of > climate change mitigation. > > *Conclusion * > > Nearly a quarter century ago, the physicist Freeman Dyson wrote, “the > characteristic feature of an ideologically driven technology is that it is > not allowed to fail. And that is why nuclear energy got into trouble. The > ideology said that nuclear energy must win. The promoters of nuclear energy > believed as a matter of faith that it would be safe and clean and cheap and > a blessing to humanity. When evidence to the contrary emerged, the > promoters found ways to ignore the evidence” (49). > > Dyson’s characterization of nuclear power’s promoters holds till today. > Nuclear advocates continue to ignore the evidence for the decline in > importance of nuclear energy and its inability to compete economically with > renewable sources of energy. New reactor designs will not rescue nuclear > power from this fate. > > The climate crisis is urgent. The world has neither the financial > resources or the luxury of time to expand nuclear power. In the 2019 issue > of the *World Nuclear Industry Status Report*, Amory Lovins, another > physicist, expressed this idea succinctly: “to protect the climate, we must > abate the most carbon at the least cost—and in the least time—*so we must > pay attention to carbon, cost, and time, not to carbon alone” *(50). > > From the perspective of minimizing cost and time, expanding nuclear energy > only makes the climate problem worse. First, the money invested in nuclear > energy would save far more carbon dioxide if it were invested in further > the switch to renewables. There is thus an economic opportunity cost to > investing in nuclear energy. And the long timescales involved in expanding > nuclear power means that the reduction in emissions from alternative > investments would not only be greater, but also quicker. > > *References * > > *1. Schneider M, Froggatt A. The world nuclear industry status report 2022 > [Internet]. Paris: Mycle Schneider Consulting; 2022 Oct. Available from: > https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/ <https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/> * > > *2. Quill Robinson. The Nuclear Energy Renaissance Has Arrived. Newsweek > [Internet]. 2022 Sep 1 [cited 2023 Mar 4]; Available from: > https://www.newsweek.com/nuclear-energy-renaissance-has-arrived-opinion-1739080 > <https://www.newsweek.com/nuclear-energy-renaissance-has-arrived-opinion-1739080> > * > > *3. Giorgio Leali. Macron announces ‘nuclear renaissance’ — and papers > over past mishaps. Politico [Internet]. 2022 Feb 10 [cited 2023 Mar 4]; > Available from: > https://www.politico.eu/article/emmanuel-macron-papers-nuclear-reset-energy-prices-france/ > <https://www.politico.eu/article/emmanuel-macron-papers-nuclear-reset-energy-prices-france/> > * > > *4. Mishra S. Towards Nuclear Energy Resurgence in India. The Times of > India [Internet]. 2022 Nov 6 [cited 2022 Nov 6]; Available from: > https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/towards-nuclear-energy-resurgence-in-india/ > <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/towards-nuclear-energy-resurgence-in-india/> > * > > *5. Squassoni S. Nuclear renaissance: is it coming? Should it? Washington, > D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; 2008. * > > *6. Sovacool BK. Questioning a Nuclear Renaissance. Berlin, Germany: > Global Public Policy Institute; 2010. Report No.: 8. * > > *7. Cooper M. The Economics of Nuclear Power: Renaissance or Relapse? > South Royalton, VT: Institute for Energy and the Environment, Vermont Law > School; 2009. * > > *8. Caldeira K, Emanuel K, Hansen J, Wigley T. Top climate change > scientists’ letter to policy influencers. CNN [Internet]. 2013 Nov 3 [cited > 2013 Dec 23]; Available from: > http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/nuclear-energy-climate-change-scientists-letter/index.html > <http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/03/world/nuclear-energy-climate-change-scientists-letter/index.html> > * > > *9. Shannon Osaka. These ‘nuclear bros’ say they know how to solve climate > change. Washington Post. 2022 Sep 30; * > > *10. WNA. Nuclear must be part of the international response to climate > change. World Nuclear Association [Internet]. 2016 Nov 17 [cited 2019 Aug > 5]; Available from: > https://www.world-nuclear.org/press/press-statements/nuclear-must-be-part-of-the-international-response.aspx > <https://www.world-nuclear.org/press/press-statements/nuclear-must-be-part-of-the-international-response.aspx> > * > > *11. More delays, cost overruns for Plant Vogtle, SEC filing shows. FOX 5 > Atlanta [Internet]. 2023 Jan 11 [cited 2023 Jan 15]; Available from: > https://www.fox5atlanta.com/news/plant-vogtle-georgia-power-southern-company-nuclear-power-plant-delays > <https://www.fox5atlanta.com/news/plant-vogtle-georgia-power-southern-company-nuclear-power-plant-delays> > * > > *12. Schlissel D. Southern Company’s Troubled Vogtle Nuclear Project > [Internet]. Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis; 2022 Jan > [cited 2022 Jan 20]. Available from: > https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Southern-Companys-Troubled-Vogtle-Nuclear-Project_January-2022.pdf > <https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Southern-Companys-Troubled-Vogtle-Nuclear-Project_January-2022.pdf> > * > > *13. Smith R. U.S. Clears Reactor Design. Wall Street Journal [Internet]. > 2011 Dec 23 [cited 2014 Jul 5]; Available from: > http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204464404577114622098744492 > <http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204464404577114622098744492> > * > > *14. Shulyak N. Westinghouse AP1000® pwr: Meeting customer commitments and > market needs [Internet]. 10th International Conference: Nuclear Option in > Countries with Small and Medium Electricity Grids; 2014 Jun 1 [cited 2017 > Mar 31]; Zadar, Croatia. Available from: > http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/46/136/46136339.pdf > <http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/46/136/46136339.pdf> > * > > *15. Finnish OL3 nuclear reactor hits output milestone for first time. > Reuters [Internet]. 2022 Sep 29 [cited 2023 Mar 4]; Available from: > https://jp.reuters.com/article/finland-nuclear-idAFL4N3110ZR > <https://jp.reuters.com/article/finland-nuclear-idAFL4N3110ZR> * > > *16. WNN. Further delay to Flamanville EPR start up. World Nuclear News > [Internet]. 2022 Dec 19 [cited 2023 Mar 4]; Available from: > https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Further-delay-to-Flamanville-EPR-start-up > <https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Further-delay-to-Flamanville-EPR-start-up> > * > > *17. Grubler A. The French pressurised water reactor programme. In: > Grubler A, Wilson C, editors. Energy Technology Innovation: Learning from > Historical Successes and Failures [Internet]. Cambridge: Cambridge > University Press; 2013 [cited 2020 Mar 20]. p. 146–62. Available from: > https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/energy-technology-innovation/french-pressurised-water-reactor-programme/98EA4FD866C2017E0E983DAF05054D88 > <https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/energy-technology-innovation/french-pressurised-water-reactor-programme/98EA4FD866C2017E0E983DAF05054D88> > * > > *18. Boccard N. The cost of nuclear electricity: France after Fukushima. > Energy Policy. 2014 Mar;66:450–61. * > > *19. Grubler A. The costs of the French nuclear scale-up: A case of > negative learning by doing. Energy Policy. 2010;38(9):5174–88. * > > *20. Koomey JG, Hultman NE. A reactor-level analysis of busbar costs for > US nuclear plants, 1970–2005. Energy Policy. 2007;35:5630–42. * > > *21. Patane M. Iowa’s only nuclear plant to shutdown in 2020. The Gazette > [Internet]. 2018 Jul 27 [cited 2018 Jul 30]; Available from: > https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/business/duane-arnold-energy-center-closing-iowa-nuclear-power-plant-by-2020-linn-county-palo-20180727 > <https://www.thegazette.com/subject/news/business/duane-arnold-energy-center-closing-iowa-nuclear-power-plant-by-2020-linn-county-palo-20180727> > * > > *22. Bandyk M. UBS analysts: Longterm contracted nuclear plants also at > risk of shutdown. SNL Financial. 2016 Jun 24; * > > *23. Abel D. Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station in Plymouth to shut down by > 2019. Boston Globe [Internet]. 2015 Oct 13 [cited 2016 Jun 12]; Available > from: > https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/10/13/entergy-close-pilgrim-nuclear-power-station-nuclear-power-plant-that-opened/fNeR4RT1BowMrFApb7DqQO/story.html > <https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/10/13/entergy-close-pilgrim-nuclear-power-station-nuclear-power-plant-that-opened/fNeR4RT1BowMrFApb7DqQO/story.html> > * > > *24. Wald ML. Vermont Yankee Plant to Close Next Year as the Nuclear > Industry Retrenches. The New York Times [Internet]. 2013 Aug 27 [cited 2015 > Sep 21]; Available from: > http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/science/entergy-announces-closing-of-vermont-nuclear-plant.html > <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/science/entergy-announces-closing-of-vermont-nuclear-plant.html> > * > > *25. IAEA. Nuclear Power Reactors in the World: 2011 Edition. Vienna: > International Atomic Energy Agency; 2011. * > > *26. IAEA. Nuclear Power Reactors in the World: 2021 Edition. Vienna: > International Atomic Energy Agency; 2021. Report No.: IAEA-RDS-2/41. * > > *27. Jeffery C, Ramana MV. Big money, nuclear subsidies, and systemic > corruption. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists [Internet]. 2021 Feb 12 > [cited 2021 Feb 13]; Available from: > https://thebulletin.org/2021/02/big-money-nuclear-subsidies-and-systemic-corruption/ > <https://thebulletin.org/2021/02/big-money-nuclear-subsidies-and-systemic-corruption/> > * > > *28. Fadaie S, Ramana MV. A dirty battle for a nuclear bailout in Ohio. > Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists [Internet]. 2020 Apr 21 [cited 2020 Apr > 27]; Available from: > https://thebulletin.org/2020/04/a-dirty-battle-for-a-nuclear-bailout-in-ohio/ > <https://thebulletin.org/2020/04/a-dirty-battle-for-a-nuclear-bailout-in-ohio/> > * > > *29. Lazard. Lazard’s levelized cost of energy-Version 15.0 [Internet]. > New York: Lazard; 2021 Oct [cited 2021 Nov 2]. Available from: > https://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-levelized-cost-of-storage-and-levelized-cost-of-hydrogen/ > <https://www.lazard.com/perspective/levelized-cost-of-energy-levelized-cost-of-storage-and-levelized-cost-of-hydrogen/> > * > > *30. Makhijani A, Ramana MV. Can small modular reactors help mitigate > climate change? Bull At Sci. 2021;77(4):207–14. * > > *31. Lovins AB, Ramana MV. Three Myths About Renewable Energy and the > Grid, Debunked. Yale E360 [Internet]. 2021 Dec 9 [cited 2021 Dec 20]; > Available from: > https://e360.yale.edu/features/three-myths-about-renewable-energy-and-the-grid-debunked > <https://e360.yale.edu/features/three-myths-about-renewable-energy-and-the-grid-debunked> > * > > *32. Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory Reform. Meeting the > Energy Challenge: A White Paper on Nuclear Power [Internet]. London: > Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory Reform; 2008 Jan [cited > 2019 Jun 17]. Available from: > https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/meeting-the-energy-challenge-a-white-paper-on-nuclear-power > <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/meeting-the-energy-challenge-a-white-paper-on-nuclear-power> > * > > *33. Cossins-Smith A. Cost of EDF’s Hinkley Point C nuclear project rises > to $40bn. Power Technology [Internet]. 2023 Feb 21 [cited 2023 Mar 4]; > Available from: > https://www.power-technology.com/news/hinkley-point-c-project-costs-rise-again/ > <https://www.power-technology.com/news/hinkley-point-c-project-costs-rise-again/> > * > > *34. Ansolabehere S, Deutch J, Driscoll M, Gray PE, Holdren JP, Joskow PL, > et al. The future of nuclear power [Internet]. Massachusetts Institute of > Technology; 2003 [cited 2017 Jun 7]. Available from: > http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/ <http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/> * > > *35. IPCC. The evidence is clear: the time for action is now. We can halve > emissions by 2030. [Internet]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. > 2022 [cited 2023 Mar 5]. Available from: > https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/ > <https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/> * > > *36. Glaser A, Ramana MV, Ahmad A, Socolow R. Small Modular Reactors: A > Window on Nuclear Energy [Internet]. Princeton, N.J.: Andlinger Center for > Energy and the Environment at Princeton University; 2015 Jun [cited 2015 > Jul 29]. Available from: > http://acee.princeton.edu/distillates/distillates/small-modular-reactors/ > <http://acee.princeton.edu/distillates/distillates/small-modular-reactors/> * > > *37. National Research Council. Nuclear wastes: Technologies for > separations and transmutation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; > 1996. * > > *38. UAMPS. Talking Points [Internet]. County of Los Alamos - Meeting of > Board of Public Utilities on 1/11/2023 at 5:30 PM. 2023 [cited 2023 Jan 7]. > Available from: > https://losalamos.legistar.com/MeetingDetail.aspx?ID=1064272&GUID=89C48D4F-F0CE-42D1-B04D-4719B2EE31E5&Options=info|&Search= > <https://losalamos.legistar.com/MeetingDetail.aspx?ID=1064272&GUID=89C48D4F-F0CE-42D1-B04D-4719B2EE31E5&Options=info%7C&Search=> > * > > *39. Schneider M, Froggatt A. The world nuclear industry status report > 2020 [Internet]. Paris: Mycle Schneider Consulting; 2020 Sep. Available > from: https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/ > <https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/> * > > *40. Ramana MV. Eyes wide shut: Problems with the Utah associated > municipal power systems proposal to construct NuScale small modular nuclear > reactors [Internet]. Portland, OR: Oregon Physicians for Social > Responsibility; 2020 Sep [cited 2020 Oct 13]. Available from: > https://www.oregonpsr.org/small_modular_reactors_smrs > <https://www.oregonpsr.org/small_modular_reactors_smrs> * > > *41. Ramana MV. Molten salt reactors were trouble in the 1960s—and they > remain trouble today. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists [Internet]. 2022 > Jun 20 [cited 2022 Jun 21]; Available from: > https://thebulletin.org/2022/06/molten-salt-reactors-were-trouble-in-the-1960s-and-they-remain-trouble-today/ > <https://thebulletin.org/2022/06/molten-salt-reactors-were-trouble-in-the-1960s-and-they-remain-trouble-today/> > * > > *42. Ramana MV. The checkered operational history of high-temperature > gas-cooled reactors. Bull At Sci. 2016 Apr;72(3):171–9. * > > *43. Abram T, Ion S. Generation-IV nuclear power: A review of the state of > the science. Energy Policy. 2008;36:4323–30. * > > *44. GIF. GIF R&D outlook for generation IV nuclear energy systems: 2018 > update [Internet]. Generation IV International Forum; 2018 [cited 2020 Jun > 18]. Available from: > https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2019-06/7411_gif_r_and_d_outlook_update_web.pdf > <https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2019-06/7411_gif_r_and_d_outlook_update_web.pdf> > * > > *45. IRSN. Review of generation IV nuclear energy systems [Internet]. > Paris: Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire; 2015 Apr [cited > 2015 May 23]. Available from: > http://www.irsn.fr/EN/newsroom/News/Pages/20150427_Generation-IV-nuclear-energy-systems-safety-potential-overview.aspx > <http://www.irsn.fr/EN/newsroom/News/Pages/20150427_Generation-IV-nuclear-energy-systems-safety-potential-overview.aspx> > * > > *46. IPFM. Fast breeder reactor programs: History and status [Internet]. > Princeton: International Panel on Fissile Materials; 2010 [cited 2021 Oct > 3]. Available from: > https://fissilematerials.org/blog/2010/02/history_and_status_of_fas.html > <https://fissilematerials.org/blog/2010/02/history_and_status_of_fas.html> * > > *47. Ramana MV. The Power of Promise: Examining Nuclear Energy in India. > New Delhi: Penguin India; 2012. * > > *48. M. V. Ramana. India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor delayed again > [Internet]. International Panel on Fissile Materials Blog. 2023 [cited 2023 > Mar 5]. Available from: > https://fissilematerials.org/blog/2023/03/indias_prototype_fast_bre_1.html > <https://fissilematerials.org/blog/2023/03/indias_prototype_fast_bre_1.html> * > > *49. Dyson F. Imagined World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; > 1999. 230 p. * > > *50. Schneider M, Froggatt A. The world nuclear industry status report > 2019 [Internet]. Paris: Mycle Schneider Consulting; 2019 Sep. Available > from: https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/ > <https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/> * > > > -- You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "Green Youth Movement" group. To unsubscribe from this group and stop receiving emails from it, send an email to greenyouth+unsubscr...@googlegroups.com. To view this discussion on the web, visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/greenyouth/CACEsOZgYaQhcwZwiD06VrwLzMtOVxneVNEfLY-cjCn4fG8dG0g%40mail.gmail.com.
