*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*
{ Sila lawat Laman Hizbi-Net - http://www.hizbi.net }
{ Hantarkan mesej anda ke: [EMAIL PROTECTED] }
{ Iklan barangan? Hantarkan ke [EMAIL PROTECTED] }
*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*
PAS : KE ARAH PEMERINTAHAN ISLAM YANG ADIL
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
----- Original Message ----- >
> >From: muhdisa <[EMAIL PROTECTED]>
> >----- Original Message -----
> >From: radar
> >
> >Setting the Record Straight: The Miracle of Islamic Science
> >Excerpted from: Appendix B of 'The Miracle of Islamic Science' by Dr. K.
> >Ajram, Copyright © 1992
> >
> >The concept that the sciences are exclusively the products of Western
minds
> >remains unquestioned by most individuals. A review of any of the standard
> >texts or encyclopedias regarding the history of science would support
this
> >view. As these books are perused, it becomes evident that the only
> >contributors given significant mention are Europeans and/or Americans. It
> >is hardly necessary to repeat the oft-mentioned names: Galileo,
Copernicus,
> >Kepler, Bacon, Newton, Da Vinci, Benjamin Franklin, etc. The unavoidable
> >conclusion is that major contributions to the development of the modern
> >sciences by other cultures is minimal. Most texts give little or no
mention
> >of the advancements made by ancient Indian, Chinese or, particularly,
> >Muslim scholars.
> >Western civilization has made invaluable contributions to the development
> >of the sciences. However, so have numerous other cultures. Unfortunately,
> >Westerners have long been credited with discoveries made many centuries
> >before by Islamic scholars. Thus, many of the basic sciences were
invented
> >by non-Europeans. For instance, George Sarton states that modern Western
> >medicine did not originate from Europe and that it actually arose from
the
> >(Islamic) orient.
> >The data in this section concerning dates, names and topics of Western
> >advances has been derived from three main sources: World Book
Encyclopedia,
> >Encyclopaedia Britannica and Isaac Asimov's 700 page book, Chronology of
> >Science and Discovery. Supportive data for the accomplishments of Islamic
> >scholars is derived from the miscellaneous references listed in the
> >bibliography of this book.
> >
> >What is Taught: The first mention of man in flight was by Roger Bacon,
who
> >drew a flying apparatus. Leonardo da Vinci also conceived of airborne
> >transport and drew several prototypes.
> >What Should be Taught: Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented, constructed
> >and tested a flying machine in the 800's A.D. Roger Bacon learned of
flying
> >machines from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas' machine. The latter's
> >invention antedates Bacon by 500 years and Da Vinci by some 700 years.
> >What is Taught: Glass mirrors were first produced in 1291 in Venice.
> >What Should be Taught: Glass mirrors were in use in Islamic Spain as
early
> >as the 11th century. The Venetians learned of the art of fine glass
> >production from Syrian artisans during the 9th and 10th centuries.
> >What is Taught: Until the 14th century, the only type of clock available
> >was the water clock. In 1335, a large mechanical clock was erected in
> >Milan, Italy. This was possibly the first weight-driven clock.
> >What Should be Taught: A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by
> >Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was
> >transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on
> >mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations of
> >epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a
> >mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans
during
> >the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of
> >Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device
which
> >kept accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly
> >accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.
> >What is Taught: In the 17th century, the pendulum was developed by
Galileo
> >during his teenage years. He noticed a chandelier swaying as it was being
> >blown by the wind. As a result, he went home and invented the pendulum.
> >What Should be Taught: The pendulum was discovered by Ibn Yunus al-Masri
> >during the 10th century, who was the first to study and document its
> >oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was introduced by Muslim
> >physicists during the 15th century.
> >What is Taught: Movable type and the printing press was invented in the
> >West by Johannes Gutenberg of Germany during the 15th century.
> >What Should be Taught: In 1454, Gutenberg developed the most
sophisticated
> >printing press of the Middle Ages. However, movable brass type was in use
> >in Islamic Spain 100 years prior, and that is where the West's first
> >printing devices were made.
> >What is Taught: Isaac Newton's 17th century study of lenses, light and
> >prisms forms the foundation of the modern science of optics.
> >What Should be Taught: In the 1lth century al-Haytham determined
virtually
> >everything that Newton advanced regarding optics centuries prior and is
> >regarded by numerous authorities as the "founder of optics. " There is
> >little doubt that Newton was influenced by him. Al-Haytham was the most
> >quoted physicist of the Middle Ages. His works were utilized and quoted
by
> >a greater number of European scholars during the 16th and 17th centuries
> >than those of Newton and Galileo combined.
> >What is Taught: Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, discovered that
> >white light consists of various rays of colored light.
> >What Should be Taught: This discovery was made in its entirety by
> >al-Haytham (1lth century) and Kamal ad-Din (14th century). Newton did
make
> >original discoveries, but this was not one of them.
> >What is Taught: The concept of the finite nature of matter was first
> >introduced by Antione Lavoisier during the 18th century. He discovered
> >that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always
remains
> >the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if salt is
> >dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total
mass
> >remains unchanged.
> >What Should be Taught: The principles of this discovery were elaborated
> >centuries before by Islamic Persia's great scholar, al-Biruni (d. 1050).
> >Lavoisier was a disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and
referred
> >to their books frequently.
> >
> >What is Taught: The Greeks were the developers of trigonometry.
> >What Should be Taught: Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical
science
> >among the Greeks. It was developed to a level of modern perfection by
> >Muslim scholars, although the weight of the credit must be given to
> >al-Battani. The words describing the basic functions of this science,
sine,
> >cosine and tangent, are all derived from Arabic terms. Thus, original
> >contributions by the Greeks in trigonometry were minimal.
> >What is Taught: The use of decimal fractions in mathematics was first
> >developed by a Dutchman, Simon Stevin, in 1589. He helped advance the
> >mathematical sciences by replacing the cumbersome fractions, for
instance,
> >1/2, with decimal fractions, for example, 0.5.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians were the first to utilize
> >decimals instead of fractions on a large scale. Al-Kashi's book, Key to
> >Arithmetic, was written at the beginning of the 15th century and was the
> >stimulus for the systematic application of decimals to whole numbers and
> >fractions thereof. It is highly probably that Stevin imported the idea to
> >Europe from al-Kashi's work.
> >What is Taught: The first man to utilize algebraic symbols was the French
> >mathematician, Francois Vieta. In 1591, he wrote an algebra book
describing
> >equations with letters such as the now familiar x and y's. Asimov says
that
> >this discovery had an impact similar to the progression from Roman
numerals
> >to Arabic numbers.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra,
> >introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables in
equations
> >as early as the 9th century A.D. Through this system, they solved a
variety
> >of complex equations, including quadratic and cubic equations. They used
> >symbols to develop and perfect the binomial theorem.
> >What is Taught: The difficult cubic equations (x to the third power)
> >remained unsolved until the 16th century when Niccolo Tartaglia, an
Italian
> >mathematician, solved them.
> >What Should be Taught: Cubic equations as well as numerous equations of
> >even higher degrees were solved with ease by Muslim mathematicians as
early
> >as the 10th century.
> >What is Taught: The concept that numbers could be less than zero, that is
> >negative numbers, was unknown until 1545 when Geronimo Cardano introduced
> >the idea.
> >What Should he Taught: Muslim mathematicians introduced negative numbers
> >for use in a variety of arithmetic functions at least 400 years prior to
> >Cardano.
> >What is Taught: In 1614, John Napier invented logarithms and logarithmic
> >tables.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim mathematicians invented logarithms and
> >produced logarithmic tables several centuries prior. Such tables were
> >common in the Islamic world as early as the 13th century.
> >What is Taught: During the 17th century Rene Descartes made the discovery
> >that algebra could be used to solve geometrical problems. By this, he
> >greatly advanced the science of geometry.
> >What Should be Taught: Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire accomplished
> >precisely this as early as the 9th century A.D. Thabit bin Qurrah was the
> >first to do so, and he was followed by Abu'l Wafa, whose 10th century
book
> >utilized algebra to advance geometry into an exact and simplified
science.
> >What is Taught: Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, developed the
> >binomial theorem, which is a crucial component for the study of algebra.
> >What Should be Taught: Hundreds of Muslim mathematicians utilized and
> >perfected the binomial theorem. They initiated its use for the systematic
> >solution of algebraic problems during the 10th century (or prior).
> >What is Taught: No improvement had been made in the astronomy of the
> >ancients during the Middle Ages regarding the motion of planets until the
> >13th century. Then Alphonso the Wise of Castile (Middle Spain) invented
the
> >Aphonsine Tables, which were more accurate than Ptolemy's.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon
> >Ptolemy's findings as early as the 9th century. They were the first
> >astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. In their critic of the Greeks,
> >they synthesized proof that the sun is the center of the solar system and
> >that the orbits of the earth and other planets might be elliptical. They
> >produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical tables and star charts.
> >Many of their calculations are so precise that they are regarded as
> >contemporary. The AlphonsineTables are little more than copies of works
on
> >astronomy transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo
Tables.
> >What is Taught: The English scholar Roger Bacon (d. 1292) first mentioned
> >glass lenses for improving vision. At nearly the same time, eyeglasses
> >could be found in use both in China and Europe.
> >What Should be Taught: Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses
> >during the 9th century, and they were manufactured and sold throughout
> >Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon
was
> >simply a regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose
research
> >Bacon frequently referred to.
> >What is Taught: Gunpowder was developed in the Western world as a result
of
> >Roger Bacon's work in 1242. The first usage of gunpowder in weapons was
> >when the Chinese fired it from bamboo shoots in attempt to frighten
Mongol
> >conquerors. They produced it by adding sulfur and charcoal to saltpeter.
> >What Should be Taught: The Chinese developed saltpeter for use in
fireworks
> >and knew of no tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did they invent
its
> >formula. Research by Reinuad and Fave have clearly shown that gunpowder
was
> >formulated initially by Muslim chemists. Further, these historians claim
> >that the Muslims developed the first fire-arms. Notably, Muslim armies
used
> >grenades and other weapons in their defence of Algericus against the
Franks
> >during the 14th century. Jean Mathes indicates that the Muslim rulers had
> >stock-piles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices,
sulfur
> >bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe. The
> >first mention of a cannon was in an Arabic text around 1300 A.D. Roger
> >Bacon learned of the formula for gunpowder from Latin translations of
> >Arabic books. He brought forth nothing original in this regard.
> >What is Taught: The compass was invented by the Chinese who may have been
> >the first to use it for navigational purposes sometime between 1000 and
> >1100 A.D. The earliest reference to its use in navigation was by the
> >Englishman, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217).
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim geographers and navigators learned of the
> >magnetic needle, possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to use
> >magnetic needles in navigation. They invented the compass and passed the
> >knowledge of its use in navigation to the West. European navigators
relied
> >on Muslim pilots and their instruments when exploring unknown
territories.
> >Gustav Le Bon claims that the magnetic needle and compass were entirely
> >invented by the Muslims and that the Chinese had little to do with it.
> >Neckam, as well as the Chinese, probably learned of it from Muslim
traders.
> >It is noteworthy that the Chinese improved their navigational expertise
> >after they began interacting with the Muslims during the 8th century.
> >
> >What is Taught: The first man to classify the races was the German Johann
> >F. Blumenbach, who divided mankind into white, yellow, brown, black and
red
> >peoples.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th centuries
> >invented the science of ethnography. A number of Muslim geographers
> >classified the races, writing detailed explanations of their unique
> >cultural habits and physical appearances. They wrote thousands of pages
on
> >this subject. Blumenbach's works were insignificant in comparison.
> >What is Taught: The science of geography was revived during the 15th,
16th
> >and 17th centuries when the ancient works of Ptolemy were discovered. The
> >Crusades and the Portuguese/Spanish expeditions also contributed to this
> >reawakening. The first scientifically-based treatise on geography were
> >produced during this period by Europe's scholars.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of
books
> >on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies during the
> >8th through 15th centuries. These writings included the world's first
> >geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn Battutah's 14th
> >century masterpieces provide a detailed view of the geography of the
> >ancient world. The Muslim geographers of the 10th through 15th centuries
> >far exceeded the output by Europeans regarding the geography of these
> >regions well into the 18th century. The Crusades led to the destruction
of
> >educational institutions, their scholars and books. They brought nothing
> >substantive regarding geography to the Western world.
> >
> >What is Taught: Robert Boyle, in the 17th century, originated the science
> >of chemistry.
> >What Should be Taught: A variety of Muslim chemists, including ar-Razi,
> >al-Jabr, al-Biruni and al-Kindi, performed scientific experiments in
> >chemistry some 700 years prior to Boyle. Durant writes that the Muslims
> >introduced the experimental method to this science. Humboldt regards the
> >Muslims as the founders of chemistry.
> >What is Taught: Leonardo da Vinci (16th century) fathered the science of
> >geology when he noted that fossils found on mountains indicated a watery
> >origin of the earth.
> >What Should be Taught: Al-Biruni (1lth century) made precisely this
> >observation and added much to it, including a huge book on geology,
> >hundreds of years before Da Vinci was born. Ibn Sina noted this as well
> >(see pages 100-101). it is probable that Da Vinci first learned of this
> >concept from Latin translations of Islamic books. He added nothing
original
> >to their findings.
> >What is Taught: The first mention of the geological formation of valleys
> >was in 1756, when Nicolas Desmarest proposed that they were formed over a
> >long periods of time by streams.
> >What Should be Taught: Ibn Sina and al-Biruni made precisely this
discovery
> >during the 11th century (see pages 102 and 103), fully 700 years prior to
> >Desmarest.
> >What is Taught: Galileo (17th century) was the world's first great
> >experimenter.
> >What Should be Taught: Al-Biruni (d. 1050) was the world's first great
> >experimenter. He wrote over 200 books, many of which discuss his precise
> >experiments. His literary output in the sciences amounts to some 13,000
> >pages, far exceeding that written by Galileo or, for that matter, Galileo
> >and Newton combined.
> >
> >What is Taught: The Italian Giovanni Morgagni is regarded as the father
of
> >pathology because he was the first to correctly describe the nature of
> >disease.
> >What Should be Taught: Islam's surgeons were the first pathologists. They
> >fully realized the nature of disease and described a variety of diseases
to
> >modern detail. Ibn Zuhr correctly described the nature of pleurisy,
> >tuberculosis and pericarditis. Az-Zahrawi accurately documented the
> >pathology of hydrocephalus (water on the brain) and other congenital
> >diseases. Ibn al-Quff and Ibn an-Nafs gave perfect descriptions of the
> >diseases of circulation. Other Muslim surgeons gave the first accurate
> >descriptions of certain malignancies, including cancer of the stomach,
> >bowel and esophagus. These surgeons were the originators of pathology,
not
> >Giovanni Morgagni.
> >What is Taught: Paul Ehrlich (19th century) is the originator of drug
> >chemotherapy, that is the use of specific drugs to kill microbes.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim physicians used a variety of specific
> >substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically
specifically
> >to kill the scabies mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds
> >as topical antiseptics.
> >What is Taught: Purified alcohol, made through distillation, was first
> >produced by Arnau de Villanova, a Spanish alchemist, in 1300 A.D.
> >What Should be Taught: Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade
> >alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and
manufactured
> >on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry.
They
> >used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
> >What is Taught: The first surgery performed under inhalation anesthesia
was
> >conducted by C.W. Long, an American, in 1845.
> >What Should be Taught: Six hundred years prior to Long, Islamic Spain's
> >Az-Zahrawi and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds
of
> >surgeries under inhalation anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked
> >sponges which were placed over the face.
> >What is Taught: During the 16th century Paracelsus invented the use of
> >opium extracts for anesthesia.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim physicians introduced the anesthetic value
of
> >opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Opium was originally used as an
> >anesthetic agent by the Greeks. Paracelus was a student of Ibn Sina's
works
> >from which it is almost assured that he derived this idea.
> >What is Taught: Modern anesthesia was invented in the 19th century by
> >Humphrey Davy and Horace Wells.
> >What Should be Taught: Modern anesthesia was discovered, mastered and
> >perfected by Muslim anesthetists 900 years before the advent of Davy and
> >Wells. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics.
> >What is Taught: The concept of quarantine was first developed in 1403. In
> >Venice, a law was passed preventing strangers from entering the city
until
> >a certain waiting period had passed. If, by then, no sign of illness
could
> >be found, they were allowed in.
> >What Should be Taught: The concept of quarantine was first introduced in
> >the 7th century A.D. by the prophet Muhammad, who wisely warned against
> >entering or leaving a region suffering from plague. As early as the 10th
> >century, Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation wards for
> >individuals suffering with communicable diseases.
> >What is Taught: The scientific use of antiseptics in surgery was
discovered
> >by the British surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865.
> >What Should be Taught: As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians
and
> >surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent.
> >Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining
> >antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific
> >protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their
> >success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to
> >Cordova, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of
> >the Middle Ages.
> >What is Taught: In 1545, the scientific use of surgery was advanced by
the
> >French surgeon Ambroise Pare. Prior to him, surgeons attempted to stop
> >bleeding through the gruesome procedure of searing the wound with boiling
> >oil. Pare stopped the use of boiling oils and began ligating arteries. He
> >is considered the "father of rational surgery." Pare was also one of the
> >first Europeans to condemn such grotesque "surgical" procedures as
> >trepanning (see reference #6, pg. 110).
> >What Should be Taught: Islamic Spain's illustrious surgeon, az-Zahrawi
(d.
> >1013), began ligating arteries with fine sutures over 500 years prior to
> >Pare. He perfected the use of Catgut, that is suture made from animal
> >intestines. Additionally, he instituted the use of cotton plus wax to
plug
> >bleeding wounds. The full details of his works were made available to
> >Europeans through Latin translations.
> >Despite this, barbers and herdsmen continued be the primary individuals
> >practicing the "art" of surgery for nearly six centuries after
az-Zahrawi's
> >death. Pare himself was a barber, albeit more skilled and conscientious
> >than the average ones.
> >Included in az-Zahrawi's legacy are dozens of books. His most famous work
> >is a 30 volume treatise on medicine and surgery. His books contain
sections
> >on preventive medicine, nutrition, cosmetics, drug therapy, surgical
> >technique, anesthesia, pre and post-operative care as well as drawings of
> >some 200 surgical devices, many of which he invented. The refined and
> >scholarly az-Zahrawi must be regarded as the father and founder of
rational
> >surgery, not the uneducated Pare.
> >What is Taught: William Harvey, during the early 17th century, discovered
> >that blood circulates. He was the first to correctly describe the
function
> >of the heart, arteries and veins. Rome's Galen had presented erroneous
> >ideas regarding the circulatory system, and Harvey was the first to
> >determine that blood is pumped throughout the body via the action of the
> >heart and the venous valves. Therefore, he is regarded as the founder of
> >human physiology.
> >What Should be Taught: In the 10th century, Islam's ar-Razi wrote an
> >in-depth treatise on the venous system, accurately describing the
function
> >of the veins and their valves. Ibn an-Nafs and Ibn al-Quff (13th century)
> >provided full documentation that the blood circulates and correctly
> >described the physiology of the heart and the function of its valves 300
> >years before Harvey. William Harvey was a graduate of Italy's famous
Padua
> >University at a time when the majority of its curriculum was based upon
Ibn
> >Sina's and ar-Razi's textbooks.
> >What is Taught: The first pharmacopeia (book of medicines) was published
by
> >a German scholar in 1542. According to World Book Encyclopedia, the
science
> >of pharmacology was begun in the 1900's as an off-shoot of chemistry due
to
> >the analysis of crude plant materials. Chemists, after isolating the
active
> >ingredients from plants, realized their medicinal value.
> >What Should be Taught: According to the eminent scholar of Arab history,
> >Phillip Hitti, the Muslims, not the Greeks or Europeans, wrote the first
> >"modern" pharmacopeia. The science of pharmacology was originated by
Muslim
> >physicians during the 9th century. They developed it into a highly
refined
> >and exact science. Muslim chemists, pharmacists and physicians produced
> >thousands of drugs and/or crude herbal extracts one thousand years prior
to
> >the supposed birth of pharmacology. During the 14th century Ibn Baytar
> >wrote a monumental pharmacopeia listing some 1400 different drugs.
Hundreds
> >of other pharmacopeias were published during the Islamic Era. It is
likely
> >that the German work is an offshoot of that by Ibn Baytar, which was
widely
> >circulated in Europe.
> >What is Taught: The discovery of the scientific use of drugs in the
> >treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the Swiss-born
> >physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with being the
> >first to use practical experience as a determining factor in the
treatment
> >of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works of the ancients.
> >What Should be Taught: Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd,
az-Zahrawi,
> >Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn
an-Nafs,
> >al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the
> >science of drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and
> >diseases. In fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word
> >"drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and
> >careful observation was extensive.
> >Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories
and
> >practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's
anatomy.
> >The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast volumes of
> >medical writings and original findings accomplished by the medical giants
> >of Islam.
> >What is Taught: The first sound approach to the treatment of disease was
> >made by a German, Johann Weger, in the 1500's.
> >What Should be Taught: Harvard's George Sarton says that modern medicine
is
> >entirely an Islamic development and that Setting the Record Straight the
> >Muslim physicians of the 9th through 12th centuries were precise,
> >scientific, rational and sound in their approach. Johann Weger was among
> >thousands of Europeans physicians during the 15th through 17th centuries
> >who were taught the medicine of ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. He contributed
> >nothing original.
> >What is Taught: Medical treatment for the insane was modernized by
Philippe
> >Pinel when in 1793 he operated France's first insane asylum.
> >What Should be Taught: As early as the 1lth century, Islamic hospitals
> >maintained special wards for the insane. They treated them kindly and
> >presumed their disease was real at a time when the insane were routinely
> >burned alive in Europe as witches and sorcerers. A curative approach was
> >taken for mental illness and, for the first time in history, the mentally
> >ill were treated with supportive care, drugs and psychotherapy. Every
major
> >Islamic city maintained an insane asylum where patients were treated at
no
> >charge. In fact, the Islamic system for the treatment of the insane
excels
> >in comparison to the current model, as it was more humane and was highly
> >effective as well.
> >
> >What is Taught: Kerosine was first produced by the an Englishman, Abraham
> >Gesner, in 1853. He distilled it from asphalt.
> >What Should be Taught: Muslim chemists produced kerosine as a distillate
> >from petroleum products over 1,000 years prior to Gesner (see
Encyclopaedia
> >Britannica under the heading, Petroleum).
> >
> >For biographies of Muslim Scholars mentioned in this article, visit the
Web
> >Site: Muslim Scientists and Islamic Civilization.
> >For authors and books mentioned in this article, refer to the author's
book
> >'The Miracle of Islamic Science'. Also, Refer to Dr. Ajram's companion
book
> >'Incredible Islamic Scientists: Incredible Facts About Incredible Men -
500
> >Multiple Choice, Short Answers and True-False Questions', 1992, p. 136.
> >ISBN 0911119485.
> >Copyright © 1992 K. Ajram, 'The Miracle of Islamic Science', p. 200.
ISBN
> >0-911119-43-4
> >
> >BOOK: MUSLIM HISTORY: 570 - 1950 C.E.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
( Melanggan ? To : [EMAIL PROTECTED] pada body : SUBSCRIBE HIZB)
( Berhenti ? To : [EMAIL PROTECTED] pada body: UNSUBSCRIBE HIZB)
( Segala pendapat yang dikemukakan tidak menggambarkan )
( pandangan rasmi & bukan tanggungjawab HIZBI-Net )
( Bermasalah? Sila hubungi [EMAIL PROTECTED] )
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Pengirim: "fikir" <[EMAIL PROTECTED]>
