http://lists.econ.utah.edu/pipermail/marxism-thaxis/2010-February/025257.html Foreign Policy In Focus (February 02 2010)
SM: >>Especially since there was no global economy in existence during at least seventeen of those eighteen centuries, and also since at no time in those eighteen centuries was China involved in international trade to any significant extent.<< Of course it is an anachronism to back-impose our ideas of transnational trade in goods and services under capitalism onto the middle ages or earlier. But 'significant' does not necessarily have to be collocated with 'extent'. Trade with the area of the world known as China was significant in the movement of ideas and technologies. For example, we can well imagine that silk was first traded to a place like Japan or westward, ending up with the Byzantines and Persians. And hence the desire of people to the east and west of China wanting to learn how to produce silk on their own--and succeeding (e.g., Byzantines, Persians, Japan, the islands). In Japan I can think of silk, tea, persimmon and citrus fruit cultivation and porcelain and ceramics all being a result, initially, of trade with China (along with immigration from what is now Korea). We could repeat the process in accounting for the movement of technologies in sea navigation and warfare outwards from China. It is an irony that the control and restriction of trade is tied up with the development of modern understanding of 'nation state' (that is, a centralized state having control of an economy and using it as a tax base), and it was this that earlier forms of China had (even if it was dynastic clans of outsiders often doing the controlling, such as Mongos and Manchus). In terms of being the source of goods, China actually played a hand in the silk routes (including a maritime one that took silk to the Mediterranean), spice routes and tea routes. Put the emphasis on silk though. And it was the Mongols who both opened China for trade to points west while also restricting trade in order to control and rule China (Yuan Dynasty). http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?gtrack=pthc&ParagraphID=bfz#bfz In the 1st century BC the Romans gain control of Syria and Palestine - the natural terminus of the Silk Road, for goods can move west more easily from here by sea. Soon a special silk market is established in Rome. China, proudly self-sufficient, wants nothing that Rome can offer. And the Han rulers are unwilling to release silk - either as thread or woven fabric - except in exchange for gold. It has been calculated that in the 1st century AD China has a hoard of some five million ounces of gold. In Rome the emperor Tiberius issues a decree against the wearing of silk. His stated reason is the drain on the empire's reserves of gold. The Silk Road introduces global economics. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1920&HistoryID=ab72>rack=pthc World trade: from the 1st century AD The Silk Road links east Asia and western Europe at a time when each has, in its own region, a more sophisticated commercial network than ever before. The caravan routes of the Middle East and the shipping lanes of the Mediterranean have provided the world's oldest trading system, ferrying goods to and fro between civilizations from India to Phoenicia. Now the Roman dominance of the entire Mediterranean, and of Europe as far north as Britain, gives the merchants vast new scope to the west. At the same time a maritime link, of enormous commercial potential, opens up between India and China. The map of the world offers no route so promising to a merchant vessel as the coastal journey from India to China. Down through the Straits of Malacca and then up through the South China Sea, there are at all times inhabited coasts not far off to either side. It is no accident that Calcutta is now at one end of the journey, Hong Kong at the other, and Singapore in the middle. Indian merchants are trading along this route by the 1st century AD, bringing with them the two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, which profoundly influence this entire region. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1920&HistoryID=ab72>rack=pthc The Pax Mongolica and the Silk Road: 13th - 14th c. AD By the middle of the 13th century the family of Genghis Khan controls Asia from the coast of China to the Black Sea. Not since the days of the Han and Roman empires, when the Silk Road is first opened, has there been such an opportunity for trade. In the intervening centuries the eastern end of the Silk Road has been unsafe because of the Chinese inability to control the fierce nomads of the steppes (nomads such as the Mongols), and the western end has been unsettled by the clash between Islam and Christianity. Now, with the Mongols policing the whole route, there is stability. In an echo of the Pax Romana, the period is often described as the Pax Mongolica. In 1340 an Italian guide book is published giving merchants practical advice on the journey. They should let their beards grow, to be inconspicuous in Asia. They will be more comfortable if they hire a woman near the Black Sea to look after their needs on the journey. The assurance that the road is safe has an alarming ring to our ears: 'If you are some sixty men in the company, you will go as safely as if you were in your own house.' But the List of commodities changing hands on the route can be guaranteed to quicken the pulse of any ambitious trader. Trade with the Mongol east is best known through the adventures of three Italian merchants - Marco Polo, with his father and uncle. http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1920&HistoryID=ab72>rack=pthc Chinese sea trade: 15th century The greatest extent of Chinese trade is achieved in the early 15th century when Zheng He, a Muslim eunuch, sails far and wide with a fleet of large junks. At various times between 1405 and 1433 he reaches the Persian Gulf, the coast of Africa (returning with a giraffe on board) and possibly even Australia. Typical Chinese exports are now porcelain, lacquer, silks, items of gold and silver, and medicinal preparations. The junks return with herbs, spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, rare varieties of wood, jewels, cotton and ingredients for making dyes. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MING/COMM.HTM Maritime Expansion Through most of their history, the Chinese have concentrated largely on land commerce and exploration. However, the Yung-lo emperor (1403-1424), the third emperor of the dynasty, began to sponsor a series of naval expeditions between 1405; these expeditions continued under his successors, the Hung-hsi emperor (1425) and the Hsüan-te emperor (1426-1435). The reason for these naval expeditions are varied, but the Yung-lo emperor wanted to expand trade with other countries and had a taste for imported and exotic goods. These expeditions sailed to East Asia, Southeast Asia, southern India, Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, and Africa. Trading from Africa to Southeast Asia, these expeditions made China the world's greatest commercial naval power in the world at the time, far superior to any European power. This led to great prestige throughout the world; it was at this time that China first received embassies from major Islamic countries such as Europe [sic]. In 1435, however, the court scholars convinced the emperor that the decline of the dynasty would be signalled by a taste for exotic wares, so China greatly contracted its commercial and maritime expansion it had begun so auspiciously. .... This commercial revolution included extensive trade with foreign countries, including direct trade with Europe. By the late sixteenth century, China was intimately a part of the growing global economy. The Chinese were trading actively with the Portugese, the Dutch, and the Japanese, who traded silver for Chinese silks and porcelain. The Ming, however, had built their own merchant marine using the trees planted by the Hong-wu emperor in the 1390's. With this fleet, which rivalled that of any European power, the Ming shipped silks, cotton, and porcelain to Manila in the Philippines and there traded with the Spanish for silver, firearms, and American goods such as sugar, potatoes, and tobacco. The Chinese porcelains, marked by the Ming style of blue painting on a white ceramic background, became all the rage in Europe in the seventeenth century. The Dutch, however, began importing tea, which became wildly popular all throughout Europe. All this trade had made China one of the leading manufacturing economies in the world. In exchange for raw goods such as silver—probably half the silver mined in the Americas from the mid-1500's to 1800 ended up in China—the Chinese shipped out manufactured goods such as textiles and porcelain. By the mid-1500's, China was well on its way to becoming an urban, industrial, and mercantile economy. The growth of the industrial sector spawned a technological boom in every area, from silk looms to paper manufacture to the development of new machines for planting, growing, and harvesting crops http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire Trade networks Archibishop John of Cilician Armenia, in a painting from 1287. His dress displays a Chinese dragon, an indication of the thriving exchanges with the Mongol Empire during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260-1294). Mongols prized their commercial and trade relationships with neighboring economies and this policy they continued during the process of their conquests and during the expansion of their empire. All merchants and ambassadors, having proper documentation and authorization, traveling through their realms were protected. This greatly increased overland trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants before uniting the Mongols. They provided him information about neighboring cultures and served as diplomats and official traders of his empire. Genghis Khan and his family supplied them with capital and sent to Khorazm. Since then, their ortoq (merchant partner) business had flourished under Ogedei and Guyuk. The merchants supplied imperial palaces with clothing, food and other provisions. Great Khans gave them paiza exempting taxes and allowed to use relay stations of Mongol Empire. They also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. The merchants’ losses to banditry had to be made up by the imperial treasury. The Mongols and their partner merchants (mostly Muslims and Uyghurs) created a silver tax with unfixed interest rate. Because of money laundering and overtaxing the yam, Mongke attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the ortoq. He decreed all merchants to pay commercial and property taxes. Mongke also paid out all drafts drawn by high rank Mongol elites to merchants. This policy continued in Yuan Dynasty, however, Hulegu and his son Abagha of the Ilkhanate ignored their officials to interfere with partner merchants in Middle East. The court of Mongol Empire encouraged merchants, whether the Chinese, Indians, Persians, Central Asians or Hansa venders, to trade within their realms. Mongke-Temur granted the Genoese and the Venice exclusive rights to hold Caffa and Azov in 1267. The Golden Horde permitted the German merchants to trade in all over its territories including Russian principalities in 1270's. During the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, European merchants, numbering hundreds, perhaps thousands, made their way from Europe to the distant land of China — Marco Polo is only one of the best known of these. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China. The Mongol Empire had negligible influence on seaborne trade. Despite the unmaterialized Franco-Mongol alliance, trade of Western Europe especially Italians with the Mongol territories had rapidly increased since 1300. They established their ports, markets and guilds in China, Russia, Crimea and Iran under the Mongols. ------------ The Tang Chinese took tea all the way to what is now Iran. This was really a pan-Asian empire. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/classical_imperial_china/tang.html The popularity of tea was steadily growing during this period. This is partly evidenced by including tea in one of the state monopolies (793 A.D.) when the state needed to increase its revenue. Other items that were monopolized were salt and alcohol. Of the three monopolies, the salt monopoly was the most profitable. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/classical_imperial_china/fivedynasties.html Despite the political division of China, four important advances occurred. In the south, trade became increasingly important, especially the tea trade. Efforts at state monopolization occurred in an attempt to control the revenue of the tea trade. Salt monopolies were developed and the salt tax was the top budget item during this period. The second development was translucent porcelain. This also happened in the south and was used both within China and as an export item. The next important development was in the field of printing. In about 940 A.D., the first printing of the Classics occurred. Attempts at movable type began in about 1045 A.D. Printing had far reaching effects on the Chinese people. As would occur later in Europe, printing allowed more people to become educated as books became more readily available. The availability of books also allowed for private libraries. Finally, in northern China, paper money was introduced. This introduction was due in part to the fact that metal is scarce in China. Also, the existing copper money was very heavy and difficult to transport. The beginnings of paper money were deposit certificates that merchants used in provinces that prohibited the export of copper coins. Eventually, the government would accept copper and then issue certificates, thus creating a banking system. This money system greatly increased trade. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/classical_imperial_china/song.html Great advances were made in the areas of technological invention, material production, political philosophy, government, and elite culture. The Song used gunpowder as a weapon in siege warfare, foreign trade expanded greatly, and the Chinese had the best ships in the world. Their ships contained as many as four decks, six masts, and a dozen sails. The ships were guided by a stern post rudder, while navigation was done through the use of charts and compasses. These ships could carry 500 men. European ships on the other hand used muscle power and an inefficient steering oar. Advances were also made in medicine, as the first autopsy was performed in about 1145 AD on the body of a Southern Chinese captive. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/yuan.html The excessive spending and trade restriction enacted during the Yuan Dynasty severely depleted China economically. Canals and palaces were built, which required the peasants to both supply more tax money and to leave their homes to build them. Campaigns were also launched against Japan which were not successful and destroyed many Chinese ships. External trade, while not forbidden was made very difficult for the Chinese. The Chinese were forbidden to learn to speak any other language. Travel outside of China for commercial reasons was made very difficult. Foreign merchants, however, were able to trade within China and were given privileges by the Yuan. They were free of taxes and were allowed to travel throughout China without restrictions. It is at this time that Marco Polo gave his description of China. It thus follows that he as a foreigner experienced a much friendlier China than the native Chinese themselves did. The Mongols took over a rich China and less than one hundred years later left an impoverished nation. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/qing.html The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. However, the British did not have anything that was easy to import to China until they began importing opium. This was devastating to China. Many became addicted to opium, and land that had previously been used for food began to be used to produce opium. Also, a large amount of Chinese money left the country in payment for the opium. Finally, in 1839 A.D. the opium trade was abolished. This set off a war with Great Britain that came to be known as the Opium Wars, and in 1842 A.D., China was forced to sign a treaty in which Great Britain received Hong Kong, and ports were opened to European trade. The terms of this treaty were not fully carried out by either side, and in 1857 A.D., fighting again broke out. The British again won and the Chinese were forced to grant more privileges to the British, that virtually turned China into a British colony. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radhanite End of the Radhanite age The fall of the Tang Dynasty of China in 908 and the destruction of the Khazar Khaganate some sixty years later led to widespread chaos in Inner Eurasia, the Caucasus and China. Trade routes became unstable and unsafe, a situation exacerbated by Turkic invasions of Persia and the Middle East, and the Silk Road largely collapsed for centuries. Moreover, the fragmentation of the Islamic world (and to a lesser extent, Christendom) into small states provided more opportunities for non-Jews to enter the market. This period saw the rise of the mercantile Italian city-states, especially Genoa, Venice, Pisa, and Amalfi, who viewed the Radhanites as unwanted competitors. The economy of Europe was profoundly affected by the disappearance of the Radhanites. For example, documentary evidence indicates that many spices in regular use during the early Middle Ages completely disappeared from European tables in the 900s. Jews had previously, in large parts of Western Europe, enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the spice trade.[17] -- Japan Higher Education Outlook http://japanheo.blogspot.com/ ELT in Japan http://eltinjapan.blogspot.com/ We are Feral Cats http://wearechikineko.blogspot.com/ _______________________________________________ Marxism-Thaxis mailing list Marxism-Thaxis@lists.econ.utah.edu To change your options or unsubscribe go to: http://lists.econ.utah.edu/mailman/listinfo/marxism-thaxis
