A P A U R U S H E Y A T V A Part of a series on Hindu philosophy Schools Samkhya Nyaya Vaisheshika Yoga Purva Mimamsa Vedanta Schools of Vedanta Advaita Vishishtadvaita Dvaita Important figures Kapila Gotama Kanada Patañjali Jaimini Vyasa Medieval Adi Shankara Ramanuja Madhva Madhusudana Vedanta Desika Jayatirtha Modern Ramakrishna Ramana Vivekananda Narayana Guru Aurobindo Sivananda
In Hinduism, Apaurusheyatva (IAST: Apauruṣeya), Sanskrit, "being unauthored", is used to describe the Vedas, the main scripture in Hinduism. This implies that the Vedas are not authored by any agency, be it human or divine. Apaurusheya shabda ("unauthored word") is an extension of apaurusheya which refers to the Vedas. Apaurusheyatva is a central concept in the Vedanta and Mimamsa schools of Hindu philosophy. These schools accept the Vedas as svatah pramana ("self-evident means of knowledge"). These schools accept that the Vedas were "seen" by the Rishis. However, that the Rishis "saw" the Vedic hymns does not necessarily mean that the hymns were composed by them. The Mimamsa school asserts that since the Vedas are composed of words and the words are composed of phonemes, the phonemes being eternal, the Vedas are also eternal. To this, if asked whether all words and sentences are eternal, the Mimamsa philosophers reply that the rules behind combination of phonemes are fixed and pre-determined for the Vedas, unlike other words and sentences. The Vedanta school also accepts this line of argument. A R Y A Arya This article is about the religious interpretations of the term, for other uses please see Arya (disambiguation). Arya is a Sanskrit and Avestan word used by Zoroastrians, Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, and has a variety of positive meanings, usually in religious contexts. Etymology and derived words "Arya" can also be spelled in the form of any of the following Sanskrit words: Arya is related to the Indo-European word "Aristocracy" and was used in the same context in Vedic tradition, as a designation for moral and spiritual heroes. [citation needed] Later this term came to signify anyone of good and noble character. 1. aryá- or aryà- is an adjective meaning "kind", "favorable", or "devoted". 2. aryáḥ or áryaḥ is a noun meaning "master" or "lord". 3. ā´rya- is an adjective derived from the second of the above meaning "respectable", "honorable", or "noble"; also "belonging to the brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, or vaiśya varṇas. 4. ā´ryaḥ is a noun corresponding to the adjective above, meaning "an honorable or respectable man", "a master", "an owner", "a member of the three highest varṇas" (named above), or particularly "a Vaiśya." The two last forms are the most common, and are the subject of this article. The important Sanskrit lexicon Amarakośa (ca. 450 AD) defines ārya thus: "An ārya is one who hails from a noble family, of gentle behavior and demeanor, good-natured and of righteous conduct. (mahākula kulinārya sabhya sajjana sadhavah.)" In Pāli and other Prakrits, ārya developed various forms such as ariya, ayya, ajja, and aje. The last of these gave rise to the honorific term -ji, which is used following a proper name, for example in Gandhiji. Ārya- was also frequently used as a prefix of honor attached to names, and sometimes as an integral part of a person's name. E.g., Āryāsaṅga is the name of a Buddhist philosopher and author [2], and Āryabhaṭa is the name of an Indian mathematician. In Sanskrit and related Indic languages, however, the sense of ārya as a distinct ethnic group is either weak or absent; ārya is in general either a term of approbation or refers to one's standing in the varṇa system: an arya is a free man and not a member of a lower caste or a slave. This social standing was not, however, necessarily related to ethnic, linguistic, or racial identity. At an early period, the cultural area where the varṇa system was used, along with the linguistic area where Indic languages were spoken, would have been nearly the same. This region (northern and central India; the Indus and Ganges plains) was called Āryāvarta, meaning "abode of the noble people". At present, these cultural and linguistic spheres overlap but are quite distinct from each other. The Western interpretation of ārya as the name of a particular race became known in India in the 19th century and was generally accepted by Hindus and Hindu nationalists, though combined with religious self-identification. Vivekananda remarked: "...it is the Hindus who have all along called themselves Aryas. Whether of pure or mixed blood, the Hindus are Aryas; there it rests." (Vivekananda, Complete Works vol.5) Iranian airiia The interpretation of the Sanskrit words in Europe was influenced by the cognate words in Avestan: airya meaning "nobly born" and "respectable", but also "Iranian" airyana or "Iranian" "Iranian", as used above, refers to all the speakers of the Iranian languages, at the time not yet differentiated from each other at the time of the composition of the Zoroastrian Yashts texts, where Zarathustra is described to have lived in Airyanem Vaejah meaning "Expansion of Aryans". The word "Iran" (Ērān) itself comes from Proto-Iranian *Aryānām "(land) of the Aryas (Iranian)". Airya was distinguished from anairya, non-Iranian, and is clearly to be understood as the name of a self-identified nation, ethnic group, or linguistic group. The word and concept of Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (lit. Land of Aryans) which is a modern-Persian form of the word "Aryana" (lit. Country of Aryans). [1] The word "arya" (in the form āriyā, آریا), in the modern Persian language, also means "noble", "Aryan", or "Iranian" The word is both related to language and ethnicity and is found in various forms of boys' and girls' names. "Aryan" is also commonly used as a boy's name in various Indic languages. Religious uses The term ārya is often found in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts. In the Indian spiritual context it can be applied to Rishis or to someone who has mastered the four noble truths and entered upon the spiritual path. The religions of India are sometimes called collectively ārya dharma, a term that includes the religions that originated in India (e.g. Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism). Hinduism In the Vedas The term Arya is used 36 times in 34 hymns in the Rig Veda. According to Talageri (2000, The Rig Veda-A historical analysis) "the particular Vedic Aryans of the Rigveda were one section among these Purus, who called themselves Bharatas." Thus it is possible, according to Talageri, that at one point Arya did refer to a specific tribe. In the Epics Arya and Anarya are primarily used in the moral sense in the Hindu Epics. People are usually called Arya or Anarya based on their behaviour. Ramayana In the Ramayana, the term Arya can also apply to Raksasas or to Ravana, if their behaviour was "Aryan". In several instances, the Vanaras and Raksasas called themselves Arya. The monkey king Surgriva is called an Arya (Ram: 505102712) and he also speaks of his brother Valin as an Arya (Ram: 402402434). In another instance in the Ramayana, Ravana regards himself and his ministers as Aryas (Ram: 600600512). In the Ramayana (202901512) Rama describes a Suta as Arya and the Raksasa Indrajit even calls Rama an Anarya (Ramayana: 607502112). [2] The Ramayana describes Rama as: arya sarva samascaiva sadaiva priyadarsanah, meaning "Arya, who worked for the equality of all and was dear to everyone." Mahabharata In the Mahabharata, the terms Arya or Anarya are often applied to people according to their behaviour. Dushasana, who tried to disrobe Draupadi in the Kaurava court, is called an "Anarya" (Mbh:0020600253). Vidura, the son of a Dasi born from Vyasa, was the only person in the assembly whose behaviour is called "Arya", because he was the only one who openly protested when Draupadi was being disrobed by Dushasana. The Pandavas called themselves "Anarya" in the Mahabharata (0071670471) when they killed Drona through deception. According to the Mahabharata, a person's behaviour (not wealth or learning) determines if he can be called an Arya [3]. [4] Modern uses in Hinduism According to Swami Vivekananda, "A child materially born is not an Aryan; the child born in spirituality is an Aryan." He further elaborated, referring to the Manu Smriti: "Says our great law-giver, Manu, giving the definition of an Aryan, "He is the Aryan, who is born through prayer". Every child not born through prayer is illegitimate, according to the great law-giver: "The child must be prayed for. Those children that come with curses, that slip into the world, just in a moment of inadvertence, because that could not be prevented - what can we expect of such progeny?..."(Swami Vivekananda, Complete Works vol.8) Swami Dayananda founded a Dharmic organisation Arya Samaj in 1875. Jainism The word Arya is also often used in Jainism. The word occurs frequently in the Jain text Pannavanasutta. Buddhism The word ārya (Pāli: ariya), in the sense "noble" or "exalted", is very frequently used in Buddhist texts to designate a spiritual warrior or hero, which use this term much more often than Hindu or Jain texts. Buddha's Dharma and Vinaya are the ariyassa dhammavinayo. The four noble truths are called the catvāry āryasatyāni (Sanskrit) or cattāri ariyasaccāni (Pali). The noble eightfold path is called the āryamārga (Sanskrit, also āryāṣṭāṅgikamārga) or ariyamagga (Pāli). Buddhists themselves are called ariyapuggalas (Arya persons). In Buddhist texts, the āryas are those who have the Buddhist śīla (Pāli sīla, meaning "virtue") and follow the Buddhist path. Those who despise Buddhism are often called "anāryas". In Buddhism, those who spiritually attain to atleast "stream entry" and better are considered Arya Pudgala, or the Arya people. In Chinese Buddhist texts, ārya is translated as "sheng", while in Japanese texts the term is translated as "sei". The spiritual character of the use of the term ārya in Buddhist texts can also be seen in the Mahavibhasa and in the Yogacarabhumi. The Mahāvibhasa [5] states that only the noble ones (āryas) realize all four of the four noble truths (āryasatyāni) and that only a noble wisdom understands them fully. The same text also describes the āryas as the ones who "have understood and realized about the [truth of] suffering, (impermanence, emptiness, and no-self)" and who "understand things as they are". [6]. In another text, the Yogācārabhūmi (Taishō 1579, vol. xx, 364b10-15), the āryas are described as being free from the viparyāsas (misconceptions). Several Buddhist texts show that the "ārya path" was taught to everybody, including the āryas, Dasyus, Devas, Gandharvas and Asuras. The Bhaiṣajyavastu (from the Mūlasarvāstivādavinaya) describes a story of Buddha teaching his Dharma to the Four Heavenly Kings (Catvāraḥ Mahārājāḥ) of the four directions. In this story, the guardians of the east (Dhṛtarāṣṭra) and the south (Virūḍhaka) are āryajatiya (āryas) who speak Sanskrit, while the guardians of the west (Virūpākṣa) and the north (Vaiśravaṇa) are dasyujatiya (Dasyus) who speak Dasyu languages. In order to teach his Dharma, Buddha has to deliver his discourse in Aryan and Dasyu languages. This story describes Buddha teaching his Dharma to the āryas and Dasyus alike.[7] The Karaṇḍavyūha (a Mahāyāna sūtra) describes how Avalokiteśvara taught the ārya Dharma to the asuras, yakṣas and rakṣasas. [8] See also Indo-Iranian languages and Indo-European languages. Indo-Aryan languages A S H R A M Ashram An Ashram (Pronounced 'aashram') in ancient India was a Hindu hermitage where sages (See Rishi) lived in peace and tranquility amidst nature. Spiritual and physical exercises, such as the various forms of Yoga, were regularly performed by the hermitage residents. Other sacrifices and penances, such as Yajnas were also performed. Many Ashrams also served as Gurukuls or residential schools for children. The word ashram is derived from the Sanskrit 'aashraya', which means 'protection'. (In the pronunciation of 'aashraya', the ending 'a' is not lengthened to 'aa'.) Ashrams have been a powerful symbol throughout Hindu history and theology. Most Hindu kings until the medieval ages are known to have had a sage who would advise the royal family in spiritual matters, or in times of crisis, who was called the rajguru (Literally 'royal teacher'). A world-weary emperor going to this guru's ashram, and finding solace and tranquility, is a recurring motif in many folktales and legends of ancient India. Ashrams were usually located far from human habitation, inside forests or mountainous regions, amidst refreshing natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction and meditation. Sometimes, the goal of a pilgrimage to the ashram was not tranquility, but instruction in some art, especially warfare. In the epic Ramayana, the protagonist princes of ancient Ayodhya, Ram and Laxman, go to the Rishi Vishvamitra's ashram to protect his Yajnas from being defiled by emissary-demons of Ravana. After they prove their mettle, the princes receive martial instruction from the sage, especially in the use of enchanted weapons, called Divyastras (Sanskrit Divya: Enchanted + Astra: Missile Weapon. The Sanskrit word 'astra' means missile weapon, such as an arrow; as opposed to 'shastra', which means a hand-to-hand weapon, such as a mace.) In the Mahabharata, Lord Krishna, in his youth, goes to the ashram of Sage Sandiipanii, to gain knowledge of both intellectual and spiritual matters. Sometimes, the word is used as a synonym of matha, but mathas are generally more hierarchical and rule-bound than ashrams, belonging to ancient orders of Hindu sadhus (Renunciants who are still searching for realization, as opposed to Rishis who have found it.) Today, the term ashram is used to refer to an intentional community formed primarily for spiritual upliftment of its members, often headed by a religious leader or mystic. A number of Ashrams have been founded in India in the 20th century as well, most notably the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad which served as Mahatma Gandhi's headquarters during the long struggle for India's independence and Aurobindo Ashram, founded in Pondicherry by the Bengali revolutionary-turned-Hindu-mystic Aurobindo Ghosh. The world-famous Karar-Ashram in Puri, in the state of Orissa, India was founded by Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri in 1903. Up to this day, the ashram is maintained and, having had such illustrious heads as Swami Satyananda Giri, and Paramahamsa Hariharananda, its monastics are still teaching Kriya Yoga which became very popular in the western world through Paramahansa Yogananda. At present the Karar Ashram is being headed by Swami Yogeswarananda Giri, the self realised master and foremost disciple of Paramahansa Hariharananda. Swami Yogeswarananda is also a master of Cosmic astrology profounded by Sri Yukteswar. He is a living a example of highest state of self realisation possible in this physical body. Swami Yogeswarananda continues to teach as per his Guru tradition that self realisation is the birth right of every individual irrespective of caste, creed and religion. See also Varnashrama dharma A S T I K A Astika Astika (Sanskrit:Āstika, "one who acknowledges") is a term used in Hinduism to refer to a person or philosophical school that accepts the Vedas. The term Astika is sometimes loosely translated as theist while Nastika as atheist. This may not be entirely accurate as the belief concerned is in the Vedas as a revealed scripture. It is notable that within the Astika schools of Hindu philosophy, the Samkhya and the early Mimamsa school do not accept a God in their respective systems (see Atheism in Hinduism). However, the other four schools namely, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Yoga and Vedanta as well as the later Mimamsa (Seshvara Mimamsa) school accept a God in their respective philosophical systems. Elaborations The terms astika and nastika are a traditional classification of Indian schools of thought. Astika refers to those schools that accept the revealed authority of the Vedas as supreme scripture. This includes the four major sects: Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism. It does not have to be just these sects, it can be any, including a Hindu worshipping their ancestors as Hinduism points out there is no difference between worshipping God and worshipping a great devotee of God. Nastika refers to all traditions that reject and deny the scriptural authority of the Vedas. This has included in the past Sikhism, Jainism, Buddhism, the Charvaka materialists and others. However Sikhs, Jains and the first devotees of the Buddha were indeed Astika as they were Hindus. 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