The Luso-Indian Stethoscope: A Community's Participation in
the Medical Profession in Nineteenth-Century Bombay
Shirley Louise Gonsalves
xuelia...@hotmail.com
This is an extract from the book
*The Luso-Indian Stethoscope*
being released in Goa this week.
Interest in the migratory experience of Goans has increased
with more general work completed recently on migrant
communities around the world. While not directly relevant to
this book, these studies nevertheless represent a fascinating
contribution to the understanding of the role of migrant
communities.
In this book, I explore the experience of an elite group of
medical men and women from Goa and Bombay. I refer to these
communities as 'Luso-Indians' as I feel the term includes
members of all the different communities included in this
book. Some writers have used the word Luso-Indian to describe
the Portuguese population in Portuguese India but I have
chosen to use it in a broader sense. Therefore, for the
purpose of this research, 'Luso-Indian' refers to indigenous
Indians from the west coast of India whose ancestors were
ruled for a period by the Portuguese and had converted to
Catholicism.
This book explores the shifting attitudes to notions of
'race' at this time. This had implications for those of
mixed-race identity. This is significant to those of
Luso-Indians origin because at that time they were considered
'mixed-race.'
The three broad issues I examine in relation to
race and migrant identities are: 'caste' or
'community,' 'professional' and `religious.' The
topic of `caste and identity amongst many Indian
Christian communities is largely taboo. Caste is
often mistakenly thought to refer to a term used by
Hindus to denote 'religious standing' within the
community. 'The caste system', as early Church
missionaries and colonial authorities understood
it, was regarded as one of inequality and
derogatory in nature. However, more recent studies
of South Asia offer with much evidence a
complimentary although alternative definition. They
argue that this term may also include the use of
the term jati broadly referring to one's hereditary
occupation. An identity connected to your family
and community occupation and passed on from father
to son through the generations. This system is
thought to possess a more symbiotic
interrelationship between different caste groups
and is thought to be more fluid in nature.
It is argued here, that, with colonialism, a new set of
professional and service occupations that were previously
taboo due to religious prohibitions for the majority of the
population became available to Christian communities. Many of
these were in medicine, and there also were numerous roles in
the service industry, such as cooks, butlers and waiters.
These new occupations -- that were not readily open to
orthodox Hindus and Muslims -- gave Christians the
opportunity to assert their status and also to form new
identities based on 'class' rather than 'caste' through their
occupation.
It is also interesting to note that in this study of a small
elite group of doctors we can see that community and
professional identity were linked in a number of ways. The
research shows that a number of their children also took up
the medical profession, suggesting the creation of new
hereditary professions. They were also more inclined to leave
Goa, both for training and to live and work. This trend would
be worthy of further investigation.
Goan social and economic mobility was explored by John
Baptist Pinto in the early 1950's. [Pinto, John Baptist. Goan
Emigration, 1962. (Reprint Goa,1556, 2019)]. More recently
this has been illustrated in work by Clifford J. Pereira on
East African Goans in the First World War and on Goans
working for the British Royal Navy. [Pereira, Clifford. `East
African Goans in World War One'. https://www.
academia.edu/9079870/East_African_Goans_in_World_War_One]
At the time, Western medicine was largely taboo
amongst the majority Hindu population. Its
association with bodily fluids was regarded as
unclean or 'polluting'. A profession involving
touching bodies of different caste groups was
unacceptable to the 'high castes'. Conversely,
Christianity does not share these taboos; in fact,
Christian groups in a number of areas in the world
have embraced the 'healing' professions. Following
the example of Jesus as a healer and various
Christian teachings regarding tending the sick had
encouraged early medical Christian missionaries to
include ministering the sick in their agenda to
reach out to people in other areas in the world.
Therefore medicine was seen to be a worthy
profession for Christians to enter if they wished,
regardless of their social standing.
Studies show that higher numbers of Indian Christians were
represented in the medical profession during the nineteenth
century. These occupations included doctors, nurses,
pharmacists and medical assistants. An interesting question
is why is it that now the majority in India largely accepts
Western medicine? It seems that 'caste' issues are no longer
a deterrent for those wishing to enter the medical
profession.
Whilst `caste' does exist, over time, beliefs and traditions
have changed in relation to both `caste' and caste taboos.
Another aspect that requires further investigation
was the contribution of Hindu doctors from Goa who,
along with Parsis, also trained at the Grant
Medical College. They too joined the medical
profession and contributed substantially to the
community, civic work and to medical research at
the time.
Further research in this area would allow us to identify
other professional identities that have evolved and changed.
It would be of interest to find out the extent or, if, at
all, Christian professional roles may have influenced the
changing perceptions of 'caste' rules and identity. The
extent to which Hindu, Muslims and Christians had a shared
notion of caste identity is still unclear.
This book identifies the creation of a medical community by
Luso-Indians; the evidence presented here suggests that they
were part of an active medical and scientific community. They
presented research, were involved in setting up and
supporting medical and scientific associations and they
gained awards and recognition for their scientific work and
research. They were also involved in service to others,
treating people medically and often using their own
resources. Fatima da Silva Gracias has examined the growth of
Western medicine in Goa. [da Silva Gracias, Fatima. Health
and Hygiene in Colonial Goa 1510-1961, New Delhi, 1994.]
Mridula Ramanna has also examined the growth of Western
medicine in India in her study of public health in Bombay.
[Ramanna, Mridula. Western Medicine and Public Health in
Colonial Bombay 1845-1895, New Delhi, 2002.]
The final category that I examined was that of
'religious' identity. With British colonisation in
India, a large variety of Christian denominations
developed. Many still exist today, in addition to
much older Christian groups from Kerala, Chennai
(Madras) and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). During this period
a sizable Catholic community lived in Goa and the
term 'Catholic' has been used here to denote those
communities that were converted by the Portuguese.
The British categorised the population in the
census material using the term 'Roman Catholic,'
reflecting Anglican objections to the use of the
Latin word for universal by the Catholic Church.
That is why in this book both 'Catholic' and 'Roman
Catholic' are terms used as presented in the
sources available.
In the historical case study presented in this book,
Luso-Indians in nineteenth-century Bombay were among a range
of minority migrant groups which contributed to society. The
Parsis and various Jewish communities were among those that
had fled religious and or political persecution elsewhere.
Many found refuge and an opportunity for economic, social and
political betterment. Arguably these minority migrant groups
contributed to the success of a city we now know and love as
Mumbai.
The interrelationship between Western science and religion
has been a subject of interest to historians for some time.
>From around the mid-nineteenth century, missionary influence
began to decline in many areas under colonial rule. Science,
education and increasingly technology became the overpowering
factor in exerting and maintaining colonial power. In her
work, Cristiana Bastos highlights the role that science and
medicine had in building and maintaining the Portuguese
Empire. [Bastos, Cristiana. 'The Inverted Mirror: Dreams of
Imperial Glory and Tales of Subalternity from the Medical
School of Goa,' Etnográfica, Vol. VI (1), 2002, pp.59-76.
'Doctors for the Empire: The Medical School of Goa and its
Narratives,' Identities, Vol 8 (4), 2001, pp.517- 548.]
Recent work by Ernestine Carreira has examined the growth of
the Portuguese Empire in Goa. [Carreira, Ernestine.
Globalising Goa (1660-1820), Goa,1556, 2014.] Rochelle Pinto
explored aspects of the influences of Portuguese colonial
rule in Goa. [Pinto, Rochelle. Between Empires, Print and
Politics in Goa, OUP, 2007.] Work on the medical school in
Goa has examined scientific theories of race in relation to
notions of 'caste.' [Pinto, Rochelle. A Travelling Science:
Anthropometry and Colonialism in the Indian Ocean,
pp.318–339, in Indian Ocean Studies: Cultural, Social, and
Political Perspectives, Shanti Moorthy, Ashraf Jamal (eds),
Routledge, New York, 2010.]
In the West, one of the most substantive intellectual changes
in the mid to late nineteenth century was the introduction of
the theory of evolution. Work by Charles Darwin, published in
1844, On the Origin of the Species, led to controversy and
scientific debate in all areas of life including religion.
The extent to which these ideas filtered into Indian society
through education and scientific circles is still largely
unknown. How these ideas influenced ideas of 'caste' and
social status would give us some understanding into society
at that time.
Further reading on this area and other related topics are
fascinating and a large amount of material is available. In
particular, for work on the history of science and religion
see recent work by David Livingstone. His book identifies how
different religious communities sharing a Scots Presbyterian
heritage engaged with Darwin and Darwinism at the turn of the
century. It's interesting that the theory of evolution had
varying degrees of acceptance around the world. [Livingston,
David N. Dealing with Darwin, JHUP, Maryland, 2014.]
There are many terms that can be used to refer to
those of South Asian origin with colonial legacies.
Migrant communities living in the diaspora or those
of mixed-race heritage also face issues connected
to their identity. They often adopt more fluid
roles and multiple identities to suit their needs.
In this book, you will find some explanations of
where these terms originated from and how they
evolved over time. The classification of different
communities that exist in the diaspora will no
doubt be subject to change and continue to be
debated in the future.
Over the years scholars have worked on the historical aspects
of the Goan community and migration. In his book on Goan
Emigration, John Baptist Pinto wrote about Goans as migrants
to East Africa and also of the need for them to integrate
back into Goan society once it had ceased being a Portuguese
colony. [Pinto, John Baptist. Goan Emigration, Goa, 1962,
(Goa,1556, 2019.)]
More recently, Stella Mascarenhas-Keyes [Mascarenhas-Keyes,
Colonialism, Migration and The International Catholic Goan
Community, Goa,1556, Saligão, 2011.] and Margret Frenz have
published their research on migration and the Goan community.
[Frenz, Margret. Community, Memory and Migration in a
Globalizing World, the Goan Experience, 1890-1980, New Delhi:
OUP, 2014.]
Selma Carvalho has published studies of the history of the
Goan community in East Africa. [Carvalho, Selma. Into the
Diaspora Wilderness, Goa,1556-Broadway Publishing House,
2010., and Carvalho, A Railway Runs Through: Goans of British
East Africa 1865-1980, Matador, 2014.] The autobiography by
Luis de Assis Correia also provides an insightful
contribution to the history of migrant communities. [Correia,
Luis de Assis. Winds of Change Across Africa 1958-1969, Goa:
Broadway, 2014.]
Contemporary Goan migrant experiences, including those
conducted in New Zealand by Ruth De Souza, [De Souza, Ruth
'Transforming possibilities of care: Goan migrant motherhood
in New Zealand', Contemporary Nurse, 20 (1), 87–101. 2005.,
and DeSouza, 'Women, Portuguese Culture and Diaspora: Women
from Goa in New Zealand and Cultural Adaptation,' Campus
Social. (3/4) 103-118. 2007.] and in Australia by Jaya
Earnest [Earnest, Jaya. Goenkars in Western Australia: Voices
and images of a vibrant Goan community, Perth Western
Australia: Black Swan Press. 2009.], have contributed greatly
to our understanding of these groups. However, more studies
need to be conducted in countries where significant numbers
of Goans live and work in order to build a global perspective
on Goan migrants.
Sandra Maria Calvinho Ataide Lobo has made a valuable
contribution to historical literature. [Ataide Lobo. 'O
desassossego goês: cultura e politica em Goa do liberalismo
ao Acto Colonial.' PhD in History and Theory of Ideas,
especially Thought, Culture and Politics. Lisbon. FCSH/ UNL,
2013 – available at http://hdl.handle.net/10362/10822] It is
hoped that in the future material in Portuguese relating to
Goa will be made available and translated for a wider
readership thus encouraging more research and analysis.
Teresa Albuquerque's work is essential reading for anyone
wanting to build a picture of Goan migrants to Bombay.
[Albuquerque, Teresa, To Love is to Serve, Catholics of
Bombay, Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture,
Bombay, 1986., and Albuquerque, Goan Pioneers in Bombay,
Goa,1556-Broadway, 2011.] Work on more recent migrants living
in Bombay has been conducted by Reena Martins. [Martins,
Reena. Bomoicar: Stories of Bombay Goans, 1920-1980,
Goa,1556, Saligão, 2014.]
Since this study was undertaken, new research has
been published on two doctors who are presented in
this book. These are Francisco Luis Gomes
(1829–1869) from Navelim [Correia, Luis Assis.
Francisco Luis Gomes, 1829-1869, Goa,1556, Saligão,
2011.] and Claudio Gama Pinto (1853–1945) from
Saligão. [Mascarenhas, Nascimento J. Land of the
Sal Tree, Goa,1556, Saligão, 2012.] Both these
doctors studied, lived and worked in Portugal, and
have left an interesting body of literature for us
to examine.
In reading about the achievements of past generations I hope
others will feel as inspired as I am in their ability to
adapt and survive in differing and sometimes difficult
circumstances.
Shirley Louise Gonsalves
September 2018
Aberdeen, Scotland
and Tivim, Goa
--
The book *The Luso Indian Stethoscope* is being released on
Friday, February 15, 2019 at Broadway Book Centre, Panjim at
5 pm. The function is open to the public and is being jointly
organised by the Goa-Book-Club
[http://groups.google.com/group/goa-book-club] and Goa,1556
[http://goa1556.in] and hosted by Broadway Book Centre.
Send your feedback to Shirley Louise Gonsalves (address
above) and discuss the issue by posting your comments to
Goanet [email to goa...@goanet.org]
Goanet Reader is compiled and edited by Frederick Noronha
(fredericknoron...@gmail.com) Your submissions are welcome.
