Part 4 21724 22724
An insight into Asceticism: Chapter 3 - The Ritualistic Context
The term “tapas” which applies to ascetic practices in general recognizes
the efficacy of the endurance of discomforts and of the difficulties which
such an aspirant has to face. The importance of tapas is stressed upon
in Aitareya
Brahmana in these words: “Heaven is established on the air, the air on the
earth, the earth on the waters, the waters on truth, the truth on the
mystic love and that on tapas.” Upanisads too uphold the idea of tapas
especially the Jabala Upanishad which advocates an extreme form of
asceticism and asks the aspirants to root out all desires from their
hearts. Coming to the Epics, both Ramayana and Mahabharata in its main and
auxiliary plots mention various hermitages full of ascetics who acquired
supernatural powers and privileges due to their extreme and prolonged
austerities. The story of Kirata-Arjuna where Arjuna takes the Pasupata vow
and meditates on Siva by performing austerities is a well-known event from
Mahabharata.
The pen picture of an early form of Saivite ascetic is met with in
Kesi Sukta of Rg Veda where a Rishi is described as follows:
“The hairy one supports the fire
The poison-fluid, and heaven and earth;
He is all sky to look upon,
The hairy one is called this light
The Rishis, girdled with the wind,
Wear garments soiled, of yellow hue;
After the wind’s course follow they,
When once the gods have entered them.
Transported with the ecstasy
Of Rishihood we mount the winds;
Ye, mortal men, are able now
To see our bodies and no more.
He flies through regions of the air,
Beholding all the various forms-
The Rishi, who was made a friend
Of every god for ministry.
The steed of Vata, Vayu’s friend,
The Rishi, by the gods impelled,
In both the oceans hath his home,
In eastern and in western seas.
Treading the path of sylvan beasts,
Gandharvas and Apsarases,
The hairy one knows every thought,
Sweet and most stimulating friend
Vayu has twirled for him; for him
He breaketh things most hard to bend;
When he, the hairy one, has drunk
With Rudra from the poison-cup.”
This hymn describes an ecstatic ascetic who looks wild in his exterior but
possesses the supernatural powers matching the deities and has done away
with the fetters (pasa) which bind him to the wordly life.
Radhakrishnan summarizes the description given in Atharva Veda in
these words:
We hear of great ascetics who obtain the mastery of nature by tapas. They
reduce the elemental forces to their control by this asceticism. It was
then well known that ecstatic conditions could be induced by the
mortification of the body. Man can participate in divine power by the
hidden force of magic. The possessors of magic and witch-craft were
accepted by Vedic seers and their calling was dignified with a result that
magic and mysticism soon became confused. We find people sitting in the
midst of five fires, standing on one leg, holding an arm above the head,
all for the purpose of commanding the forces of nature and subduing the
gods to their will.
Thus, all sorts of marvellous achievements were made through extreme
penance. Our epics and Puranas are full of stories which suggest the power
of tapas. Indra got rid of Brahma-Hatya by meditating upon Pasupati and
performing severe austerities for thousand years. Ravana is known to have
worshipped Siva in the most difficult ascetic methods and received the boon
of invulnerability in return. Visvamitra the Kshatriya compelled the gods
to grant him the birth and rights of a Brahmin by performing severe
austerities.
The power of asceticism is well summarized by Manu in these words
“Whatever is hard to be traversed, whatever is hard to be attained,
whatever is hard to be reached, whatever is hard to be performed, all may
be accomplished by austerities; for austerity possesses a power which it is
difficult to surpass”.
As comes across through various myths and legends Siva himself is the
ideal ascetic. Rather Puranic Siva is an interesting amalgam of a worthy
householder and a thorough ascetic. What characterizes Lakulisa-Pasupata
system is not only its philosophical side or spiritual discipline (sadhana)
but also the rites and rituals it prescribes. Kaundinya in the beginning of
his bhasya offers adoration to Pasupati who has created the whole world
beginning from the Brahman for the good of all. He says that the five
subjects of discussion in the Pasupata system are: Karya (effect)
Karana (cause) Yoga (meditaion) Vidhi (Behaviour) Dukkhanta
(cessation of sorrows) The teaching of Pasupata system is for the total
annihilation of all kinds of sorrow and this teaching can only be
communicated to proper disciples. When the disciple follows the ascetic
practices recommended by the lord he attains liberation through His grace.
So the most important step is to get initiated in the system which is
termed as Diksa.
* Vidhis: Use of Ashes (Meanings and Metaphors) and Nudity
Chapter 3 - The Ritualistic Context vibhuti mahima*
According to Kaundinya Vidhi or behavior constitute those activities
which bring about merit (dharma). That is to say that yoga cannot be
attained only by gaining knowledge but a certain course of action has to be
followed by the aspirant to make him realize the fruits of yoga. Vidhi is
of two orders, the principal comprising of direct religious practices
“carya” and the subsidiary one comprising of purificatory rites.
Bhasmana trisavanam snayita (Pasupata-sutra 1.2)
One must take bath by ashes in three periods of a day
Bhasmani Sayita (Pasupata-sutra 1.3)
One should lie down in ashes
Anusnanam (Pasupata-sutra 1.4)
Re-bath (with ashes)
Use of ashes in initiation ceremonies can be seen in Kanphata yogis who
after first stage of initiation are besmeared with ashes to signify their
death to the world and their rebirth in the new order. Mention of ashes is
found from KM (4.3) while describing the form of Lakulisa;
Drtyagnopavitam cha mekhalabhasmasanyutam/
Prahastmanassarve nityam protphullocanam//
He (Lakulisa) was seen adorned with a Yajnopavita, mekhala and had ashes
smeared all over. He had beautiful eyes like blossoms and was seen running.
Hara believes that the importance of use of ashes is fundamentally based
upon the ancient Indian belief that attributes special cleansing efficacy
to the ashes, which are the remnant of all burning fiery energy.
Regarding the nature of ashes commentary on Pasupata-sutra 1.2 says : (p 56)
Here ashes mean the object which is given to Vama (Pasupati) and which is
produced by fuel set on fire. That is made by others, it is an earthly food
and shining. Ashes should be acquired like alms from the villages. Because
ashes are helpful to the observances of bath, lying down and re-bath, they
must be taken and because they have nothing to do with injury they are the
purest and best things and they should be taken profusely as the means of
spiritual rise……` Interesting refeence can be found from Caryapada by the
Sahajyana siddha Kanhapada (Krsnapada or Kanu-pa).Equating himself with a
Kapalin and explaining the essence of a true kapalin Kanha says “the yogin
Kanha has become a Kapali, and has entered into the practices of yoga, and
he is sporting in the city of his body in a non-dual form ……..The ashes he
smears on his body are the ashes of passion(raga), aversion (desa,dvesa),
and attachment (moha)……”
Here one is reminded of the story of sage Mankanaka narrated
twice in and is repeated in important texts like Skanda Puranam, Padma
Puranam., Vamana Puranam, and Katha-sarit-sagar. Here the sage Mankanaka
having performed austerities for many years accidently cut his finger on a
blade of grass. Instead of blood he saw vegetable sap flowing from the
wound. The sage became ecstatic and began to dance at his achievement and
power developed by years of penance. To teach him a lesson Siva dressed as
a Brahmin came to him and tapped his fingers together and they were turned
to ashes. When the sage saw such a miraculous feat he realized his vanity
and base passion. The fact that “One’s own body is only made of ashes”
dawned upon him completely and he went back to his penance. Such successes
as Sukumari Bhattacharji observes belong to Yoga as a discipline. Thus
Siva’s feat is indicative of attaining higher success for ashes in this
context symbolize the complete mortification of the flesh, the triumph of
the spirit over the physical world and also the supreme detachment. In
short Siva is seen here as a supreme sage–a Yogisvara and in this aspect he
reflects the Samkhya concept of inactive Purusa as well as “Avyakta” of
Svetasvatara Upanisad. Hence the yogic aspect is somewhere linked with
inactivity but at the same time this period of inactivity raises the
potential of Siva as a creator.
The symbolism of ashes does not end there. The enigma of the
symbolism of ashes is brought out very well by O’Flaherty in these words
which reconcile both erotic and ascetic aspect of Siva.
On an explicit superficial level, the ashes are ascetic, disgusting (being
the ashes of corpses), and simply anti erotic. But, for all their apparent
loathsomeness, the ashes assume an erotic and creative significance upon
Siva by their association with the burning and resurrection of Kama and
Sati.
This contention is further substantiated by the passage given in
Hathayoga-pradipika which mentions that the ashes were used in rites of
expiation and were used in place of sandalwood paste upon the bodies of a
couple who had performed Tantric ritual intercourse. While on one hand they
always reminded the aspirant of the universal truth i.e “Everything is
ashes”, on the other they were used for their practical antiseptic value
too. Rather the practical value has been presented in a garb of
metaphysical expositions to stress on the importance of the ashes. By this
logic ashes assumed the symbol of sin-destroying object which Siva grants
to his worshippers.
This can be better understood in context of Pasupata concept of Sauca
(Purity) as mentioned in Pasupata-sutra.
As seen above the Lakulisa-Pasupata’s had invented a new set of Niyamas in
which they included rites and practices realted to ashes in a big way.Hara
believes that ashes were used by the ascetics of this order primarily for
cleansing and purification purposes.
Kaundinya too suggests the importance of this concept in his commentary on
Pasupata-sutra 1.2,1.3 and 1.4
“Purity (Sauca) is established in the system (tantra). How? Because we have
the teaching (in our scripture) that one should bathe with ashes (bhasma
snana). Again this purity is of three kinds: purity of body (gatra-sauca),
purity of mind (bhavasauca) and purity of soul (atma-sauca)…
Ashes burn all those defects which are born of company, which owe their
origin to parents, which are due to food and drink, which are caused by
cross-breeding and which resort to the body, bones and marrows. And again,
it is said–The good thinkers say that the impure food caused by hairs and
worms becomes eatable, if it is only touched by ashes”.
The fact that bathing with ashes is classified along with purity of mind by
removing desires and purity of soul by courting dishonor points at its
importance as a major purificatory rite. This triple division of purity is
also seen in the Ratnatika on Ganakarika by Bhasarvajna though he uses the
words kaya sauca, antahkarana sauca and atman sauca instead of the ones
used in Pasupata-sutra.
This purificatory device is taken to a metaphysical and mystical level can
be seen in this passage again cited from PBh which quotes from scriptures
from other orders :He who drinks wine, approaches the wife of the teacher,
steals and kills a brahmana; is released from sins, when he besmears
himself with ashes, lies on the heap of ashes ad reads the chapter on
Rudra. He who is self-controlled and who always takes to bath by fire
(ashes), saves twenty-one generations and goes to the blissful state. Thus,
in other scriptures also bodily purification by ashes is reputed
Daily practices:
After initiation and being marked with ashes Pasupata-sutra recommends that
the ascetic aspirant should live in a temple, cave or natural ghettos and
perform daily rituals
Ayatana-vasi (Pasupata-sutra 1.7)
(A resident in a temple) (chakroborti p 59)
Pancharthabhasya elaborates[10] :
.. The aspirant should live in that house made by others an so he is the
resident an takes the house. He lives in a place on earth, in the sky (in
caves or upper floors?) in the root of a tree or goes on wandering at large
anywhere……It has been said “If there is any holy place (a temple) of
Mahesvara in a village or a forest, that is the residence of the virtuous
and that is the grandest spot for spiritual success.
Apart from following the ash rites and other rites of purification some
special functions had to be performed in the temple by the aspiring ascetic
practioner.
These have been mentioned in both Pasupata-sutra and Ganakarika
Hasita-gita-nrtta-dundunkara-namaskara-japyopahareno patisthet
(Pasupata-sutra 1.8)
(One should worship with laughter, songs, dance, sounds of dum-dum,
salutations, mutterings and presents)
Laughter is the first of six forms of worship that are to take place in the
temple. The character of each is explained in both Pasupata-sutra and
Ganakarika and compiled in these points by Collins .
- Laughter is a wild loud laugh, with the throat and lips wide open
(Pancharthabhasya).
- Song is performed according to the rules of the Gandharvasastra and in
which, in public hearing, the names of God, those which derive from his
qualities, his substances, and his acts are called to mind
(Pancharthabhasya) while singing, the adept rises to his feet (Ganakarika
Ratnatika)
- Dance is what is performed according to the rules of the Natyasastra and
consists of all possible motions of the hands and feet: upward, downward,
inward, outward and shaking motion (Pancharthabhasya). Both
Pancharthabhasya and Ganakarika Ratnatika mention that this dance should be
accompanied by a song “Whatever is sung in Sanskrit or Prakrta in ones own
composition or others” should be sung”
- Dumdumkara [Huduk-kara as per Ganakarika] is the sacred sound like the
bellowing of a bull, produced by the contact of the tongue-tip with the
palate (Pancharthabhasya) GanakarikaRatnatika elaborates that this is to be
performed after the dance when the devotee has again sat down and is still
meditating on Siva.
- Inner worship or Namaskara is to be done mentally (Pancharthabhasya)
- Japyam means the concentration of an idea with mind on the lines of the
mantras known as Sadyojata etc
Ganakarika Ratnatika notes that laughing, singing and huduk-kara are verbal
activities, dancing is a bodily one while Namaskara and Japa are
mental.These six modes of worship or offering as they are called (upahara)
are done in front of a image of Daksinamurti, the ascetic-teacher form of
Siva.It further continues that after the sixfold worship is completed, one
meditates on the God and declares that he will perform the avabhrthasnana
or purificatory ablution.He also pays homage to the teachers of the order
and then he then departs, making obeisance to the lord and after that
slowly circumabmbulates the image or the shrine while praying. Then he
performs certain meditative practices outside the temple. This completes
the prescribed regimen for the first religious stage.
Nudity:
The aspect of nudity is explained and advocated in sutras 1. 10 and 1. 11
as an important step to detachment from the worldly desires
Ekavasah (Pasupata-sutra 1. 10) [Having only one garment]
.. by the significance of this sutra only,all objects being rejected, the
disciple should be initiated to possess only one garment. The question
is–when will he have the removal of shame? The answer is–by knowledge and
sinlessness
Hence it is stressed that once the true knowledge dawns upon the aspirant
all sense of shame and desires are lost completely and he moves to the
stage when he can be roam about naked and feel no embarrassment.
Avasa va (Pasupata-sutra 1. 11) [Without any garment]
He should live without clot, naked as he was born and without any
possession…For the sake of living without accepting and for the exposition
of something not good–these two needs should be marked.
And naked is how he is supposed to enter the villages and approach people
for alms and ashes but at this stage he has to be careful not to talk to
women and low caste people as the former can re-ignite the worldly passion
which the aspirant is trying to conquer. If by any chance such an encounter
is made the aspirant is supposed to smear himself with ashes perform breath
control exercise, japa and wander around to control his mind and to wipe
out the sinful thoughts.
When these jealousy and other thoughts do not rise, the seed being
destroyed, then that should be taken as the highest purity of thought.
Once the mind is calm and all base emotions and feelings controlled then
the aspirant gains Yoga and various miraculous powers like power of
seeing,hearing, thinking and knowing from a distance, power of omniscience,
swiftness of thought, power to assume forms at will, faculty of expatiation
and in short becomes a Siddha.
Regarding such a yogi Kularnava Tantra[12] says:
A Kula yogi may dwell anywhere, disguised in any form, unknown to anybody.
Such yogins in diverse guises, intent on the welfare of men, walk the earth
unrecognized by others. They do not expend their self knowledge at once. In
the midst of men they live as if intoxicated, dumb, dull…..Adepts in Kaula
yoga speak in the manner of the uncivil, behave as if ignorant; appear like
the lowly. They do so in order that men may ignore them and not flock to
them; they talk nothing at all…Such a yogi lives in a way that this world
of men may laugh, feel disgust, revile and seeing, pass at a distance
leaving him alone. He would go about in different guises, at times like one
worthy, at times like one fallen, at times like a ghost or a demon
The method of worship of Pasupati by the Lakulisa cult is described in the
commentaries of the Sarvadarsanasamgraha and Ganakarika in detail and has
been summarized here.
An aspirant is supposed to perform panchagnisadhana. After cleaning his
feet and teeth and performing ablutions in the morning, he smears his body
with ashes and meditates on Siva. At noon and in the evening, a similar
procedure is prescribed. After his bath he proceeds slowly to garbhagrha.
On the right of the image, he kneels on the ground and placing his hand on
his chest,visualizes Siva and meditates. While meditating on Siva, he
laughs loudly; then he sings and dances.He then sits in the manner
prescribed above, meditates on Siva,voices hudukkara three times,does
namaskara six times and performs the japa. While coming out of the
garbhagrha he salutes three times and goes around the deity also three
times while continuing the japa. While bathing in a lonely place he pays
homage to all the Tirthesas from Lakulisa to Rasikara, and then does one
pradakshina around the deity.The place selected for meditation is examined
in the morning and cleaned of dirt and impurities.When darkness descends
the site is again cleaned with the end of a piece of cloth ad purified with
ashes. He stays there until he is tired and overpowered by sleep. He
thereupon gets up and spreads the ground with plenty of bhasma (ashes),
then sleeps and when on awakening repeats the procedure. When he obtains
jnana, with the permission of the guru he performs krathana, spandana and
mandana in the midst of the people.
Besides these Pasupata ascetics are advised to act in asocial manner e.g,
pretend to sleep when they are not actually sleeping, shaking their legs as
if suffering from a paralysis attack, walking like a lame man and
exhibiting signs of lust at the sight of young beautiful women. The above
description leaves no doubt that they are supposed to make themselves
repulsive to the society in general.
If one sees such irrational sounding behavior in the light of philosophical
position of the order and in light of material furnished by various texts,
it starts assuming a coherent meaning.
This nature is succinctly explained by Eliade in these words:“Pain exists
only to the extent to which experience is referred to the human personality
regarded as identical with purusha, with the Self. But since this relation
is illusory, it can easily be abolished. When purusha is known, values are
annulled; pain is no longer either pain or nonpain, but a simple fact; a
fact that, while it preserves its sensory structure, loses its value, its
meaning. This point should be thoroughly understood, for it is of capital
importance in Samkhya and Yoga and, in our opinion, has not been
sufficiently emphasized. In order to deliver us from suffering, Samkhya and
Yoga deny suffering as such, thus doing away with all relation between
suffering and the Self. From the moment we understand that the Self is
free, eternal, and inactive, whatever happens to us sufferings, feelings,
volitions, thoughts, and so on no longer belong to us.”
Such observation is corroborated by Vatulnatha Sutra which comprises
thirteen esoteric aphorisms dealing with abstract Saiva thought. It is
believed that it was penned down by Siddha Vatulanatha, who was a Kaula
Siddha and probably lived in 12th CE.
END of Part 4 KR IRS 21724 22724
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