The selections below are very typical and come from the more common Introductory Psychology and Developmental Psychology texts. The best one is probably the last. Please note two things: 1) These selections represent the field, not my own opinion :) 2) Gilligan herself has modified her original position based on the data described below >From Baron Was Gilligan correct? Does Kohlberg's theory underestimate the moral maturity of females? Most studies undertaken to test this assertion do not support it. On both hypothetical and everyday moral problems females score as high as males in Kohlberg’s terms, (Walker & DeVries, 1985). Indeed, if anything, females tend to score higher in moral reasoning than males. Moreover, when asked to recall personal moral conflicts they have actually experienced, males and females of various ages do not differ as to whether they describe these in terms of concerns for impersonal rights or in terms of caring for others and personal relationships (Walker, 1988). Thus, there is little evidence for the view that two sexes focus on different aspects of dilemmas. >From Weiten According to Carol Gilligan (1982), Kohlberg equates morality with justice, a view that reflects males' typical socialization. She maintains that females are socialized to equate with caring for others and self-sacrifice. She has hypothesized that Kohlberg's approach may underestimate the moral development of female subjects. This assertion has not been supported by subsequent research, which has failed to find significant gender differences in age-related progress through Kohlberg's stages (Thomas, 1986; Walker, 1991). >From Rice: ...For example, Lawrence Walker (Walker et al., 1987) scored children's answers to moral dilemmas using both Kohlberg's fairness scheme and Gilligan's criteria for a care orientation. He found no sex difference for either hypothetical dilemmas like the Heinz dilemma or the real-life dilemmas suggested by the children themselves. Gilligan's arguments have often been quoted in the popular press as if they were already proven, when in fact the empirical base is really quite weak. Gilligan herself has done no systematic studies of children's (or adults') care reasoning. ... we typically find no differences between boys and girls in their tendencies to use care versus justice orientations ... >From Papalia and Olds A large scale analysis comparing results from many studies found NO significant difference in men’s and women’s responses to Kohlberg’s dilemmas across the lifespan (Walker, 1984). In the few studies in which men scored slightly higher, the findings were not clearly gender-related since the men generally were better educated and had better jobs than the women. A more recent study of male and female college and university students found no evidence that men’s thinking is more principled and women’s more relationship-oriented (Orr & Luszcz, 1994). Thus the weight of the evidence does not appear to back up either of Gilligan’s original contentions: male bias in Kohlberg’s theory or a distinctly female perspective on morality. Gilligan has since modified her position on gender differences in moral judgments, suggesting that moral development in both sexes involves an evolution from more abstract principles to compassion and care and the ability to see gray areas (Gilligan, Murphy, & Tappan, 1990). My personal opinion? The neuropsychological and ethological research points to the presence of differences between the average members of each sex in a number of areas. Further, the brand of feminism I was earlier exposed to argued that men and women have different ways of approaching and processing certain situations but the female methods have been undervalued or punished by a patriarchical society. Depending on the context, I agree. After all of the politics are taken out of it (if ever), I think we will find that there are gender differences inherent in our species that actually complement each other quite nicely, if channeled appropriately. It is our task as a culture to document, understand and value those differences, rather than avoid and punish them. RJ Some References: Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice; Psychological Theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gilligan, C., Murphy, J. M. & Tappan, M. B. (1990). Moral development beyond adolescence. In C. N. Alexander 7 E. J. Langer (Eds.), Higher stages of human development (pp. 208-228). New York: Oxford University Press. Orr, R., & Luszcz, M. (1994). Rethinking women’s ways: Gender commonalities and intersections with postformal thought. Journal of Adult Development, 1, 225-234. Walker, L. J. (1988). The development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Annals of Child Development, 55, 677-691. Walker, L. J., de Vries, B. & Trevethan, S. D. (1987). Moral stages and moral orientations in real-life and hypothetical dilemmas. Child Development, 58, 842-858. Walker, L. J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child Development, 55, 677-283.