[CTRL] Timeline 1875-1899

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In 1875 infantile scurvy was described by Cheadle. (82)

In 1875 is passed the Public Health Act of 1875 (England). (6)

In 1875 Daniel Coit Gilman, (S&B 1852) became president of John Hopkins
University.  He held this post until 1901. (130)

In 1875, according to official government statistics, 120,000 Americans are
estimated to be addicted to opium. (6)

In 1875 United States immigration excludes "coolies, convicts and
prostitutes" as undesirable aliens. (6),(116)

In 1875 Pflueger contributes to prior studies, (see von Liebig, 1842) that
show the important relationship between the essential fatty acids, present in
unrefined linseed oil, and the amino acids. (42) He helped to show a clear
connection between oil and protein nutrition on one hand, and oxygen uptake
and biological oxidation in tissues on the other hand. (13) [See 1872, (EFAs
Previous, Next)]

In 1875 the first State Agricultural Experiment Stations established as a
result of the Morrill Land-Grant College Act of 1862 were established in
California and Connecticut. (87) [See (Morrill Previous, Next)]

In 1875 a municipal ordinance was passed in San Francisco which prohibited
the smoking of opium in opium dens. (93)

In 1875, in a letter to John M. Glidden, treasurer of the Pacific Guano Works
Company, Spencer F. Baird urged him "to make a display of your wares at the
centennial (in Philadelphia), as this is one of the most important interests
in the United States." He writes further that "there is no species (of fish)
worked up elsewhere comparable to the movement with the menhaden, or pogy, as
to numbers and the percentage of oil. The combination, too, of the pogy scrap
with the South Carolina phosphates and the guanos of the West Indies and of
the PacificA are also quite novel, and as being especially an American
industry, are eminently worthy of full appreciation." (68) [See note 122]

In 1875 William James starts the first psychological laboratory at Harvard.
(116)

In 1875 is the first meeting of the American Neurological Association.  They
vote to bar membership to superintendents of mental hospitals.  They begin
publishing the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. (116)

In 1875 the American Forestry Association is founded. (142)

In 1876 the Appalachian Mountain Club is founded in Boston. (142)

In 1876 after Congress allocates $2,000 in a Department of Agriculture
appropriations bill for "some man of approved attainments" to report to
Congress on forestry matters, Franklin B. Hough is appointed first federal
forestry agent, with the task of gathering statistics about the state of the
nation's forests. (142)

In 1876 Emil Kraepelin studies under Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. (116)

In 1876 Alphonso Taft, (S&B 1832) became Secretary of War in the Grant
Administration. (26)

In 1876 Virginia City, Nevada enacted a similar law to the San Francisco
ordinance in 1875 which prohibited the smoking of opium in opium dens. (106)

In 1876 Hoppe-Seyler contributes to prior studies, (see von Liebig, 1842,
Pflueger 1875) that show the important relationship between the essential
fatty acids, present in unrefined linseed oil, and the amino acids. (42) He
helped to show a clear connection between oil and protein nutrition on one
hand, and oxygen uptake and biological oxidation in tissues on the other
hand. (13) [See (EFAs Previous, Next)]

In 1876 the first prohibition amendment to the Constitution was introduced
into Congress. (86)

In 1876 the American Gynecological Society was formed. (1)

In 1876 the Association of American Medical Colleges was founded. (1)

In 1876 the Physiological Society was founded in Great Britain. (1), (82)

In 1876 the American Chemical Society was founded in Washington, D.C. (82)

In 1876 the concept of essential amino acids was introduced by Th. Escher.
(82)

In 1876 the name "enzyme" was given by Kuhne to the unorganized ferments of
the diastase or pepsin type. (82)

In 1876 Samuel Wilmot became the Superintendent of Fish Breeding in Canada.
(66)

In 1876 Hashish is served at the American Centennial Exposition. (89),(124)
During the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, some pharmacists carried
ten pounds or more of hashish. (123)

In 1876 the Posse Comitatus Act was passed. It banned military involvement in
law enforcement. (93)

In 1876 Darwin’s book Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom
explained the concept of hybrid vigor, stimulating experiments and studies by
other scientists. Though the basic concept of hybrid vigor had been discussed
by various researchers during the earlier decades of this century, this was
the first complete analysis and description. (87)

In 1876 Robert Koch, while practicing as a physician in Silesia, isolated the
anthrax bacillus from the blood of animals that had died in an epidemic of
anthrax; he then grew the bacillus in pure culture and found that it would
infect other animals. (1)

In 1876 Alexander Bain (considered to be one of the "last philosophical
psychologists") founds the first journal of psychology, Mind.  His books The
Senses and the Intellect and The Emotions and the Will are fundamental
textbooks in the English language for the next 50 years. (116)

In 1877 the first major monograph on the menhaden, a prolific and widely
useful species, is published by G. Brown Goode, Assistant Fish Commissioner.
(20) [See note 63]

In 1877 the Sultan of Turkey makes cannabis illegal, to little effect. (89)
The sultan of Turkey (who still ruled over Egypt) ordered a nationwide
campaign to confiscate and destroy the drug [in Egypt]. (106) [See 1874, 1879
, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1877 the secretary of the interior, Carl Schurz, aroused congressional
interest in retaining permanent forests in public ownership and in improving
administration of the federal real estate. This led to the beginning of a
system of forest reserves authorized in 1891; 30 were created by Presidents
Benjamin Harrison and Grover Cleveland. (1)

In 1877 state laws requiring identification of margarine were passed in New
York and Maryland. (9)

In 1877 Pavlov began his classic studies on digestion in dogs. (82)

In 1877 Richard Dugdale publishes The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism,
Disease and Heredity. (117),(140)

In 1877 Phenylalanine was discovered and its empirical formula was
determined. (82)

In 1877 W.J. Beal, working at Michigan State University, (then Michigan
Agricultural College) made the first controlled crosses of corn in an effort
to increase yield. Later, workers would experiment with inbred varieties,
devising a system of "double Crossing" to produce large quantities of hybrid
seed. (87) [See (Morrill Previous, Next)]

In 1878 Unilever began manufacturing margarine in Europe. (9) [See note 58]

In 1878 American Neurologists attack psychiatry as unscientific, having a
custodial approach to the inmates of mental institutions and "deficient in
anatomical and pathological training ... untrustworthy as to their reported
results."  Psychiatry responds by accusing the neurologists of wanting to
take over mental institutions for their own profit and research.  Some call
for the joining of neurology and psychiatry in college courses. (116)

In 1878 the U.S. Fish Commission occupies a permanent station in Gloucester,
Massachusetts to supplement fish propagation studies ongoing at the Woods Hole
 Station. This would eventually become the first seafood technology lab in
the United States. (20)

In 1878 Franklin B. Hough begins to issue a landmark four-volume Report upon
Forestry to Congress, the first fruit of the Federal government's nascent
forestry activities and a wide-ranging survey of information and issues
pertinent to the management of the nation's forests. (142)  The remaining
volumes of the Report upon Forestry are issued until 1884 under Hough and his
successor, Nathaniel H. Egleston. (142)

In 1878 the breeding of cod and haddock is accomplished at Gloucester,
Massachusetts. (20)

In 1878 Louis Pasteur tells his family never to show anyone his lab
notebooks. His last surviving grandson donated the documents to the
Bibiotheque Nationale in Paris in 1964. Later, historians would begin to
examine Pasteur’s notes and would find evidence of potential scientific
misconduct and a large degree of dubious human experimentation. (6)

In 1878 Spencer Baird became Secretary of the Smithsonian. (49) [See note 79]

In 1878 John A. Haynie and his younger brother Thomas set up a primitive fish
processing operation on the Haynie family property in Reedville, Virginia –
today the site of Omega Protein’s largest plant. The company was known at the
time as the John A. Haynie Company. It would later be renamed in 1903 to the
Haynie, Snow & Company and in 1913 to Reedville Oil & Guano. (58) [See note 86
]

On April 29 1878 the first Federal Quarantine Act was passed. (80)

In 1878 Congress appropriated funds "for investigating the origin and causes
of epidemic diseases, especially yellow fever and cholera." (80)

In 1878, based on a new Hungarian mechanical process, the Washburn
experimental flour mill in Minneapolis marked the beginning of modern milling
in the U.S. (87)

In 1879 a series of editorials in the New York Times reflect neurology and
psychiatry's heated debate over whether to deal with mental illness as
organic (brain and nerve-based) or ideational, (psychological). (116) [See
1878, note 96]

In 1879 the Association of Medical Women (Great Britain) was founded. (1)

In 1879 the U.S. Geological Survey was formed with the support of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (66) It is
established by Congress as a bureau of the Department of the Interior. (95)
Congress passes a sub-section of an appropriations bill officially
establishing the U.S. Geological Survey as a bureau of the Interior Department
, with responsibility for "the classification of the public lands." (142)

In 1879 Commissioner Spencer Baird initiates a landmark study on the
composition of fish to determine their food and nutritive values. The
research was conducted by W.O. Atwater and Charles Woods. (20) [See also 1888]

In 1879, Spencer F. Baird arranged for his staff to work with the Census
Office on the first comprehensive statistical survey of the U.S. fishing
industry. (63) The report, Fisheries and Fishing Industry of the United States
 was prepared and edited by [George Brown] Goode (1884 - 1887) for the 1880
Census. (68)

On Apr. 3, 1879 Dr. John B. Hamilton was appointed Surgeon General of the
Marine Hospital Service, (later the U.S. Public Health Service). (80)

In 1879 the National Board of Health was created by law. It represented the
first organized, comprehensive, national medical research effort of the
Federal Government. (80)

In 1879 importation of cannabis into Egypt was once again made illegal. (106)
[See 1877, 1884, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

>From 1880 to 1904 the second wave of state prohibition laws occurs. (86)

>From 1880 to 1900 elite American students of Wundt in Germany return and
become heads of psychology departments at Harvard, University of
Pennsylvania, Cornell and all major universities and colleges. Wundt trains
James Cattell, who returns to the U.S. and trains over 300 in the Wundtian
system which, with help from the Carnegie and Rockefeller foundations,
eventually assume control of psychological testing in the United States for
all the soldiers of the First World War. (6)

By 1880, after much work, Adolf von Baeyer and his laboratory successfully
synthesized indigo. For decades, German importers gained growing control of
markets in natural dye sources. BASF, (the Baden Dye and Soda Company) had
achieved control of indigo, a dye produced principally in India. The strength
of this industry quickly galvanized, and in 1890 German exports of dyes
accounted for 90% of the world’s supply. In 1914 German companies formed a
color cartel, known as I.G. Farben (Interessen Gemeinschaft Farben) that soon
expanded into the production of fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals. (87)

During the 1880s 5,246,613 immigrants arrived in America. In 1882 alone,
788,992 were admitted. Two hundred twenty thousand Chinese came from 1854 to
1882. (38)

In 1880 Spencer Baird receives the first-honor prize at the Berlin Exposition
from the Emperor of Germany, not only for the excellence of the Commission’s
fisheries display, but also owing to the international regard of Baird who
was widely seen as the preeminent fish culturist for his successful promotion
of fish culture and fish acclimatization – exchanging fish and fish ova
throughout the world. (20)

In 1880 Denmark citizens consume 29 pounds each of sugar annually. The
recorded death rate from diabetes is 1.8 per 100,000. (6)

In 1880 Lunin in Bunge’s laboratory showed that mice failed to survive on a
purified diet (synthetic milk diet). (82)

In 1880 Great Britain exports 105,508 chests of opium into China. (6)

In 1880 smallpox vaccinations start in the United States. (6)

In 1880 the U.S. Congress passes a law regulating Chinese immigration. (160)

In 1881 Improvements to Mège-Mouriez’s formulation were made; U.S. Dairy
created a subsidiary, the Commercial Manufacturing Company to produce
margarine. (9)

In 1881 the U.S outlaws participation in the China opium traffic. (1)

In 1881 Frederick Wines publishes the report, The Defective, Dependent and
Delinquent Classes of the Population of the U.S. (117)

In 1881 Massachusetts passes the first law allowing voluntary admission to
state hospitals. (116)

In 1881 Henry P. Crowell of Ravenna, Ohio buys a bankrupt mill and starts the
production and advertising of "Quaker Oats". (96)

In 1881 Wilhelm Preyer wrotes a book, The Mind of the Child, considered the
first published work on child psychology. (116)

In 1881 the Division of Forestry is provisionally established in the
Department of Agriculture, with Franklin B. Hough as its first chief. (142)

In 1882 Robert Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus. (1)

In 1882 Élie Metchnikoff studied the role of phagocytosis in the immune
systems of starfish and Daphnia. (105)

In 1882 the death rate from tuberculosis in New York was 370 per 100,000. (48)

In 1882 the National Wholesale Druggists’ Association was formed. (91)

In 1882 Takaki reduced the incidence of beriberi in the Japanese navy by
dietary improvements. (105)

In 1882 the Albatross, under the direction of the U.S. Fish Commission,
further extended knowledge of the extent and variety of marine life. (105)

In 1882 the United States immigration adds "lunatics and idiots" to the
exclusion list. (6), (78), (116)

In 1882 George Romanes writes the first textbook on comparative psychology,
Animal Intelligence.  He studies animal behavior and compares it to man's.
(116)

In 1882 the U.S. passes the Undesirables Act. (117)

In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act which prohibited Chinese
laborers from entering the U.S. for the next ten years. (106),(160)

In April 1882 vessels report countless dead tilefish floating in an area from
Georges Banks to Cape May. A conservative estimate made by Capt. J.W.Collins
of the RV Grampus placed the number of dead fish at upwards of 1,438,720,000
(That's 1.43 billion fish!). Allowing 10 pounds for each fish he estimated
this amounted to 288 pounds for every man, woman and child in the U.S. at the
time. The mystery was never explained, but a plausible explanation for the
deaths seemed to be a sudden chilling of the deeper waters along this stretch
of ocean. No catch of tilefish was reported again for 15 years. (20)

In 1882 the John F. Slater Fund was established with similar goals as the
Peabody Fund. (1),(130)  The three original trustees were President
Rutherford B. Hayes, Daniel Coit Gilman, (S&B 1852) and Morris K. Jessup,
treasurer. (130)

>From 1883 to 1919 the synthesis and determination of the structure for many
sugars was accomplished by Emil Fischer. (82)

By 1883 Hashish smoking parlors have opened in every major American city,
including an estimated 500 such establishments in New York City alone. (28)

In 1883 Julius Wagner-Jauregg notices the state of a mental patient improves
after his recovery from a high fever.  He proceeds to infect patients with
various diseases, (tuberculosis, malaria, typhoid) to try to induce high
fevers in them.  The only psychiatrist to receive a Nobel prize, he uses hot
baths, hot air, infrared light bulbs and electric "mummy" bags to raise body
temperature. (116)

In 1883 scurvy in infants was distinguished from rickets and treated by fruit
juice, potato and fresh meat juice by Barlow. (82)

In 1883 Edouard van Beneden announced the principles of genetic continuity of
chromosomes and reported the occurrence of chromosome reduction at germ cell
formation. The sperm and egg are haploid and fertilization restores the
diploid chromosome number. (105)

In 1883 the Society of Medical Jurisprudence [law] was formed. (1)

In 1883, when the American Medical Association founded its Journal, Dr.
Nathan Smith Davis became its first editor, serving until 1889. (48)

In 1883 Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, published Inquiries into
Human Faculty, in which he coined the word eugenics. (1)  He proposes
practices of racial superiority and sterilization. (6)  Francis Galton was a
Psychologist. (116)  The word eugenics was taken from the Greek, eugenes,
which means "to be well born."  Galton characterized eugenics as a civic
religion based on science.  He hoped it would replace Christianity, which he
blamed for destroying the Roman Empire because of its teaching that the meek
shall inherit the earth. (153)

In 1883 Thomas H. Huxley, the British social Darwinist, was elected as
president of the Royal Society. (102)

>From 1884 to 1888 identification of the cell nucleus as the basis for
inheritance was independently reported by Oscar Hertwig, Eduard Strasburger,
Albrecht von Kölliker and August Weismann. (105)

Between 1884 and 1887 Sigmund Freud, inspired by his American colleagues,
conducted a series of experiments with cocaine and published three
enthusiastic articles ascribing beneficial, if not miraculous, effects to the
new drug. (44) In 1884 an assistant to Sigmund Freud touched purified cocaine
to his tongue and discovered a numbing sensation that led to its use as a
local anesthetic. Later, a similar chemical compound was produced
synthetically, procaine, (commonly called by its trade name Novocain), which
has replaced cocaine medicinally. (87)

In 1884, in England, Dr. Charles Creighton is asked to write an article for
the Encyclopedia Britannica on vaccination. After much research
internationally, he concludes that vaccination constituted "a gross
superstition." (6)

In 1884 the Fabian Society is founded in London by Sidney and Beatrice Webb.
(6)

In 1884 Francis Galton states that "The Jews are specialized for parasitical
existence upon other nations." (78)

In 1884 Dr. Sobatta of the German Army reports on the results of vaccination
to the German Vaccination Commission, which subsequently publishes data
proving that re-vaccination does not work. Deaths from vaccination are
routinely covered up by physicians. (6)

In 1884 Élie Metchnikoff proposed the cellular theory of immunity. (105)

In 1884 the American physician Edward Livingston Trudeau established the
Trudeau Laboratory in Saranac Lake, New York. It became a model sanitarium,
the kind that for many years was the mainstay of tuberculosis treatment. (109)
 [See note 121]

In 1884 cultivation of cannabis became a criminal offense [in Egypt] but
customs officers were allowed to sell the drug abroad. Profits were divided
among informers and customs officers. The laws had very little effect on
hashish use in Egypt, but "were reissued in 1891 and 1894. (106),(118) [See
1879, 1898, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1884 Max Rubner extended the work of Justus von Liebig by making
quantitative determinations of the energy values of certain foods. His work
made possible a scientific explanation for metabolism and a basis for the
study of comparative nutrition. (105)

In 1884 the New York Cancer Hospital opened from the old Women’s Hospital.
Backing came from the Astor family, whose fortune was founded on old John
Jacob Astor’s ties with the East India Company, the British Secret
Intelligence Service, and the international opium trade. The hospital will
undergo a renaming to Memorial Hospital in the 1890s after receiving gifts
from other benefactors. (48)

In 1884 Dr. George H. Simmons, future head of the American Medical Association
 begins practicing in Nebraska as an abortion doctor until 1899. (48)

In 1884 histones were discovered and named by Albert Kossel at the University
of Strassburg. (82) According to Websters Dictionary, histones are any of a
group of five small basic proteins, occurring in the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells, that organize DNA strands into nucleosomes by forming molecular
complexes around which the DNA winds.

In 1884 the superintendent of a home for the "feebleminded" in Kansas
castrates 58 children before public revulsion forces him to stop. (6) [See
note 126]

In 1884 the American Historical Association was founded.  Moses Coit Tyler (
S&B 1857) was a founder. (1)  Andrew Dickson White, (S&B 1853) was also a
founder. (26)

In 1884 the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists was founded. (82)

In 1884 William James founds the American Society for Psychical Research.
(116)

>From 1885 to 1889 Norman Jay Colman of Missouri , is Commissioner of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. (94)

In 1885 the German eugenicist Dr. Alfred Ploetz publishes The Excellence of
Our Race and the Protection of the Weak in which he states that
humanitarianism which fosters the protection of weaker members threatens the
quality of the race. (6)

In 1885 the Woods Hole marine fisheries research laboratory is established.
(136)

In 1885 the U.S. Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture was
formed with the support of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS). (66) At the time it was actually known as the branch of
economic ornithology established in the division of entomology, U.S.
Department of Agriculture; it became the Bureau of Biological Survey in 1905
under the direction of C. Hart Merriam. (1)  The Division of Economic
Ornithology and Mammalogy is established in the Department of Agriculture.
With Clinton Hart Merriam appointed as its first Chief, much of the
Division's early work focuses on studying the positive effects of birds in
controlling agricultural pests and defining the geographical distribution of
animals and plants throughout the country.  The Division later expands and is
renamed the Bureau of Biological Survey. (139)  In 1896 it is renamed to the
Division of Biological Survey. (142) [see 1896]

In 1885 Congress grants the Division of Forestry permanent status within the
Department of Agriculture.  Bernhard E. Fernow is chief of the division. (142)

In 1885 congress passes the Oleomargarine Act of 1886 imposing a prohibitive
tax on yellow margarine, levying high license fees on all manufacturers,
wholesalers and retailers of the product, and in other respects subjected the
manufacture and sale of this food to numerous restrictions. (1) The tax
levied was 2 cents per pound. President Grover Cleveland, from the dairy
state of New York, signed the law, describing it as a revenue measure.
However, the 1886 law failed to slow the sale of margarine principally
because it did not require identification of margarine at the point of sale
and margarine adversaries turned their attention back to the states.(9)

In 1885 the Glasgow Obstetrical and Gynaecological Society was founded in
Great Britain. (1)

In 1885 large scale, controlled dietary experiments conducted on sailors of
the Japanese Navy by K. Takaki prevented beriberi. (82)

In 1885 Robert Koch served as professor at the University of Berlin and
director of the Institute of Hygiene. (109)

In 1886 arginine was discovered by Schulze and Steiger. (82)

In 1886 John S. Pemberton created Coca-Cola, a beverage using water, (later
carbonated water), caramel, kola nut, sugar, vanilla, cinnamon, lime and coca
leaf extractions. By 1903 the makers began purging the coca leaf extract of
its cocaine component before adding it to the syrup. (87)

In 1886 Francis Galton devised a new useful statistical tool, the correlation
table. (105)

In 1886 Timothy Dwight, (S&B 1849) became President of Yale. (26)

In 1886 the Dutch government began a study of beri-beri, which was
devastating the native Indonesian population. Christian Eijkman was assigned
the task of studying the "germ" thought responsible. When his laboratory
chickens developed symptoms, Eijkman observed that a temporary diet of pure
white rice coincided with the disease. Studies led to the culprit – the
truncated cone rice mill – which so thoroughly polished the bran from rice as
to remove some vital quality, later determined by R. Williams to be thiamine,
vitamin B1. (87)

In 1886 a seven year period begins in Japan where 25,474,370 vaccinations and
re-vaccinations are performed, representing 66% of the entire population of
Japan. During that period, there are 165,774 cases of smallpox with 28,979
deaths. (6)

In 1886 more than 30 manufacturing facilities were reported to be engaged in
the production of margarine. Among them were Armour and Company of Chicago
and Lever Brothers of New York. Seventeen states required the product to be
specifically identified as margarine. Various state laws to control margarine
were passed in a number of states, but were not enforced. Later that year,
New York and New Jersey prohibited the manufacture and sale of yellow-colored
margarine. (9)

In 1887 the American Physiological Society was formed. (1), (82)

In 1887 physician H.A. Hare prescribed marijuana to subdue restlessness and
anxiety and distract terminally ill patients. He stated, "The patient, whose
most painful symptom has been mental trepidation, may become more happy or
even hilarious." (88),(123)  He believed cannabis to be as effective a pain
reliever as opium. ... Hare also noted that hemp is an excellent topical
anesthetic, especially for the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue - a
property well known to dentists in the nineteenth century. (123)

In 1887 the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland was founded. (1)

In 1887 Nellie Bly commits herself to a New York asylum for 10 days and
writes and expose. (116)

In 1887 Sege Korsakov speaks in Moscow "On the Non-Restraint Treatment of
Patients". (116)

In 1887, in England, Dr. Edgar M. Crookshank, professor of pathology and
bacteriology at Kings College, is asked by the British government to
investigate the cowpox outbreak in Wiltshire. The result of the investigation
was contained in two volumes of The History and Pathology of Vaccination, in
which he states that "the credit given to vaccination belongs to sanitation."
(6)

In 1887 Dr. M.W. Barr, president of the American Association for the Study of
Feebleness strongly advocates sterilization. (6)

In 1887 the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL), private research facility, is
established at Woods Hole, and staff are given free access to Commission
Facilities (20) [See note 32]

In 1887 Joseph James Kinyoun is appointed director of the Marine Hospital
Service. (81)

On March 2, 1887 the Hatch Bill, U.S. Congress, provided for the
establishment of agricultural experiment stations. The Office of Experiment
Stations in Washington, D.C. was organized by W.O. Atwater. (82) The Hatch
Experiment Station Act was signed, which provided Federal grants for
agricultural experimentation and a cooperative bond between the U.S.
Department of Agriculture and the nation’s land grant colleges. (94) [See
(Morrill Previous)]

In 1887 measures are taken again to prohibit cannabis in South Africa
[details unknown].  (106) [See (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next]

In 1887 a ban on smoking opium imports is instituted. (86),(93)  This act
prohibited the importation of non-medical opium. (55)

In 1887 Emil Fischer elaborated the structural patterns of proteins. (105)

In 1887 Ernst Haeckel (Häckel), after studying the radiolarians brought back
from the Challenger expedition elaborated the concept of organic form and
symmetry. (105)

In 1887 the Interstate Commerce Act was passed. (1)

In 1887 a bacteriological laboratory, known as the Laboratory of Hygiene, was
established under Dr. Joseph James Kinyoun at the Marine Hospital, Staten
Island, (renamed Hygienic Laboratory in 1891). (80)

In 1887 Stanley Hall founds the American Journal of Psychology. (116)

In 1887 James McKeen Cattell is the first American to receive a Ph.D. in
psychology in 1886 under Wundt at Leipzig and also occupies the world's first
chair of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania in this year. (116)

In 1887 amphetamine is created in Germany. (116)

In 1887, exemplifying the significance of sportsmen as conservationists,
George Bird Grinnell and Theodore Roosevelt found the Boone and Crockett Club
, which plays a major role in associating big-game hunters with the
conservation movement.  The club eventually publishes several volumes of
writings on hunting and conservation, including American Big Game In Its
Haunts: The Book of the Boone and Crockett Club in 1904. (142)  Madison Grant
is also a founding member and serves as secretary and later as president. (38)
 [see 1905]

In 1888 the American Association of Anatomists was formed. (1)

In 1888 the American Pediatric Society was formed. (1)

In 1888, an Albany New York physician, Ephraim Cutter, M.D. wrote a book
called Diet in Cancer, in which he stated, "Cancer is a disease of
nutrition." (48) [See note 57]

In 1888 the Bacteriological Institute opens in Paris for experimentation with
animals and production of vaccines and sera. Other institutes open around the
world modeled after the Paris institute. (6)

In 1888 the Bacteriological Institute in Odessa, Russia tries its hand at a
vaccine for anthrax. Over 4500 sheep are vaccinated; 3700 of them die from
the vaccination. (6)

On January 20th 1888 Congress establishes the U.S. Fish Commission as an
independent agency of the Federal government and terminates its
administrative relationship with the Smithsonian Institution. Marshall
McDonald is appointed Commissioner at a salary of $5,000 per year. (20) [See
note 79]

In 1888 W.O. Atwater publishes the 200-page report on the nutritive values of
various fishes in the Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for 1888-1889.
It provides a basic reference on proximate composition of fish and shellfish
and remains valuable today for comparison of composition ranges in relation
to species size and distribution. (20)

In 1888 Lebedow showed that if starving dogs are given either protein or fat
alone, they die even faster than if they receive no food at all (that is,
continue to be starved). However, if they receive good protein and good fat
together, they recover quickly from starvation. Good protein was protein rich
in sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine), which includes
all animal proteins: dairy, beef, chicken, fish, shellfish and egg as well as
soybean (especially soft tofu). (13) [See (EFAs Previous, Next)]

>From 1889 to 1890 the surgical removal of the pancreas of a dog by von Mering
and Minkowski produced a condition resembling human diabetes mellitus. (82)

In 1889 Michael Chevreul's treatise on lipids, Recherches chimiques sur les
corps gras d'origine animale, originally published in 1823, is reprinted.(1)

In 1889 children at the Pennsylvania Training School for Feebleminded Children
 are castrated. (6)

In 1889 lysine was discovered by Drechsel. (82)

On March 6, 1889 Jeremiah McLain Rusk of Wisconsin became Secretary of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (94)

In 1889, in England a royal commission is appointed to inquire into certain
aspects of the vaccination question. The committee would be in session for 7
years and would issue 6 reports, with the final report in 1896. The result of
the final report was the Vaccination Act of 1898. (6)

In 1889 milk was found to be deficient in iron by von Bunge. (82)

In 1889 Birch reported success in treating opiate and chloral addiction with
cannabis. (104)

In 1889 Francis Galton formulated the law of ancestral inheritance, a
statistical description of the relative contributions to heredity made by
one’s ancestors. (105)

On February 15, 1889 the Commissioner of Agriculture was elevated to a
cabinet-level Secretary position. Norman Jay Colman of Missouri, who had been
Commissioner from April 3, 1885 to February 15, 1889, served as the Secretary
for less than one month, until March 6, 1889, when he was replaced by
Jeremiah McLain Rusk of Wisconsin. (94)

On March 23, 1889 an assistant secretary was appointed and assigned
responsibility for coordinating the scientific work of the Department [of
Agriculture]. (94)

In 1889 the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) had the responsibility for
regulating all foods. USDA Chief Chemist, Harvey Washington Wiley, first
publishes assessment of chemical preservatives. (85)

In 1889 E.A. Birch reported the use of cannabis in treating drug addiction.
He treated a chloral hydrate addict and an opiate addict with pills
containing Cannabis indica and found a prompt response in both cases, with
improved appetite and sound sleep. (123)

During the 1890’s popular American "marriage guides" recommend cannabis
extracts for heightened marital pleasures. Women’s temperance groups,
lobbying for alcohol prohibition, suggest cannabis as a suitable substitute
for the "demon drink". (28)

In the 1890s the average American’s annual consumption of opium had risen
fourfold from the 1840s to 52 grains. … In an era of poor sanitation in
crowded cities, dehydrating diseases such as cholera were epidemic and opium
was a genuinely effective remedy. (44)

In the 1890s, chemists Wood, Spivey, and Easterfield, at Cambridge
University, "succeeded in obtaining a relatively pure extraction of cannabis
which they called "cannabinol." (106)

As late as 1890, thirty-three million dollars’ worth of cordage was
manufactured in the United States. (106)

After 1890 progressively higher taxation is applied to suppress domestic
manufacture of smoking opium in the U.S. (1)

About 1890, Theodore Roosevelt married his second wife, Edith Kermit Carow
and built a home at Sagamore Hill, near Oyster Bay, Long Island, where he was
to live for the rest of his life. (1) [See note 120]

In 1890 Henry L. Stimson, (S&B 1888) joins Elihu Root’s law firm. (26) [See
note 112]

In 1890 the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was passed. (1)

In 1890 a rapid test for butterfat content of milk was developed by Babcock
at the University of Wisconsin. (82)

In 1890 the geographic distribution of rickets was found by Palm to be
related to the amount of sunlight. (82)

In 1890 Robert Koch announced the preparation of tuberculin which raised
hopes that he had discovered a cure for tuberculosis. Although these hopes
were never realized, tuberculin proved to be a valuable aid in the diagnosis
of tuberculosis. (1)

In 1890 a St. Louis physician formulated peanut butter as a food for
invalids. (87)

In 1890 cultivation, importation and use [of cannabis] was outlawed [in
Greece] but the law was not strictly enforced. Up to that point its use was
confined primarily to the poor, and was nicknamed the "weed of the poor".
"Middle-class Greeks … saw the drug as a social danger and they regarded
hashish users as degenerate and criminals." (106) [See (Cannabis Prohibition
Previous, Next)]

In 1890 there is a U.S. economic depression created by international bankers.
(6)

In 1890 Queen Victoria's personal physician, Sir Russell Reynolds, prescribes
cannabis for menstrual cramps.  He claims in the first issue of The Lancet,
that cannabis, "When pure and administered carefully, is one of the most
valuable medicines we possess". (124)

In 1890 Congress gave the Marine Hospital Service interstate quarantine
authority on March 27. (80)

In 1890, J.R. Reynolds, a British physician, summarized thirty years of
experience with Cannabis Indica, recommending it for patients with "senile
insomnia" and suggesting that "in this class of cases I have found nothing
comparable in utility to a moderate dose of Indian hemp."  According to
Reynolds, hemp remained effective for months and even years without an
increase in the dose.  He also found it valuable in the treatment of various
forms of neuralgia, including tic douloureux (a painful facial neurological
disorder), and added that it was useful in preventing migraine attacks:
"Every many victims of this malady have for years kept their suffering in
abeyance by taking hemp at the moment of threatening or onset of the
attack."  He also found it useful for certain kinds of epilepsy, for
depression, and sometimes for asthma and dysmenorrhea. (123)

In 1891 doctor J.B. Mattison, urging physicians to continue using hemp,
called it "a drug that has a special value in some morbid conditions and the
intrinsic merit and safety of which entitles it to a place it once held in
therapeutics".  He reviewed its uses as an analgesic and hypnotic, with
special reference to dysmenorrhea, chronic rheumatism, asthma, and gastric
ulcer, and added that "it has proved an efficient substitute for the poppy"
in morphine addicts.  One of his cases was a "naval surgeon, nine years a ten
grains daily subcutaneous morphia taker ... [who] recovered with less than a
dozen doses". ... For Mattison the most important use of cannabis was in
treating "that opprobrium of the healing art - migraine."  Reviewing his own
and earlier physician's experiences, he concluded that cannabis not only
blocks the pain of migraine but prevents migraine attacks.  Years later
William Osler expressed his agreement, saying that cannabis was "probably the
most satisfactory remedy" for migraine. (123)

In 1891 the Hygienic Laboratory moved from Staten Island, N.Y., to the Butler
Building, Service Headquarters, Washington, D.C. (80)

On June 1, 1891 Dr. Walter Wyman was appointed Surgeon General of the Marine
Hospital Service, (later the U.S. Public Health Service). (80)

In 1891 the Lister Institute for Preventative Medicine opened in London. (82)

In 1891 the cannabis prohibition laws in Egypt, are reissued. (106) [See 1884
, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1891 Robert Koch was made director of the new Institute for Infectious
Diseases in Berlin, a position he held until 1904. (1)

In 1891 Congress passed the Forest Reserve Act, creating the legislative
foundation for what will become the National Forest system. (95)  President
Benjamin Harrison issues a Presidential Proclamation setting aside a tract of
land in Wyoming as the nation's first forest reservation, the first unit in
what eventually will become the National Forest System. (142)

In 1891, in culmination of the effort to establish a privately-funded
tax-exempt association to protect Massachusetts's natural and historical
treasures which was spearheaded by Charles Eliot, by act of the Massachusetts
legislature the trustees of public reservations is incorporated.  This
organization is the nation's first land trust, and the immediate inspiration
for Great Britain's National Trust. (142)

In 1891 the U.S. Congress creates the office of Superintendent of
Immigration. (117)

In 1892 the University of Chicago, financed by John D. Rockefeller under
Baptist auspices, opened. (49)

In 1892 Ellis Island (New York) opens. (117)

In 1892 Isaac Kerlin gives his presidential address to the Association of
Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded
Persons advocates "asexualization" to control "epileptic tendency" and for
the removal of inordinate desires. (117)

In 1892 there were 165,774 cases of smallpox in Japan, which resulted in
29,979 deaths, 20 years after smallpox vaccinations were started in Japan.
(48)

In 1892 John D. Rockefeller appointed Frederick T. Gates as his agent,
conferring upon him the title of "head of all his philanthropic endeavors."
(48)

In 1892 there is a Cholera epidemic in Hamburg, Germany. It’s threat of
importation into the U.S. forces the establishment of the New York City
Health Department division of Pathology, Bacteriology and Disinfection. (6)

In 1892 America takes the lead in world wide sugar consumption, surpassing
the British. (6)

In 1892 Andrew [Dickson] White, (S&B 1853) is U.S. Ambassador to Russia. (6),
(130)

On June 4, 1892 the Sierra Club is founded with John Muir as the
organization’s first president. (95)  David Starr Jordan is a founder and
it’s publication editor. (49)  The Sierra Club is modeled on the Appalachian
Mountain Club. (142)

In 1892 Stanley Hall co-founds the American Psychological Association with
James Baldwin. (116)

In 1892 Dean C. Worcester had been informed of a seemingly mythical highland
in Luzon by Domingo Sanchez of the Spanish Forestry Bureau. (150)

In 1893 - 1897 Christiaan Eijkman, working in the Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia), where a disease known as beriberi was widespread, was able to
produce a similar malady in chickens simply by restricting their diet to
polished rice, the staple food of the human population. Extracts of the
usually discarded rice polishings were found to cure the deficiency disease,
and later work showed that the vitamin involved was thiamine (vitamin B1).
Following the demonstration that beriberi is caused by a dietary deficiency,
other diseases that resembled certain naturally occurring disorders of
mankind and of animals were produced experimentally by feeding various
deficient diets. (1)

In 1893 there is a U.S. banking panic. (6)

In 1893 the German, Dr. Julius Hensel states that processed flour is devoid
of nutrients. (6)

In 1893 a new Quarantine Act was passed which strengthened the Quarantine Act
of 1878 and repealed the act establishing the National Board of Health. (80)

In 1893 President Benjamin Harrison sets aside 13 million acres of forest
reserves. (95)

In 1893 privately supported health research in the U.S. began with the
founding of the Johns Hopkins medical school, for which support was provided
through private endowment, inaugurating an important trend. (1) It becomes
the headquarters of German Allopathic medicine. (6)

In 1893 British governor of India commissions a report on the effects of
smoking "bhang" (hemp buds and leaves) on heavy users in the subcontinent.
The Report of the Indian Hemp Drug Commission 1893-1894 concludes that use is
not a problem and that no criminal penalties should apply to recreational
indulgence. (28) "The ganja menace" caught the attention of the Temperance
League, and a commission, on March 16, 1893 was ordered to determine whether
cannabis should be prohibited in India. The commission met on August 3, 1893
and remained in session until August 6, 1894. (106) [See 1894, (Cannabis
Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1893 the Prohibition Party’s efforts at partisan politics fails and in its
place the Anti-Saloon League takes over leadership of the prohibition
movement. The movement’s appeal spreads among middle class, nativist
Protestants threatened by changes rooted in industrialization, urbanization,
and massive immigration, and who seek to uphold their position and the values
of industry, frugality, sobriety, and religiosity. (86)

In 1894 the cannabis prohibition laws in Egypt, once again are reissued. (106)
 [See 1884, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1894 the world chemical firm, Unilever is founded. (48) [See note 58]

In 1894 the Smith-Lever Act was signed, providing for cooperative
administration of extension work by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
the state agricultural colleges. The major goal was to assist individual
farmers in increasing productivity. This work resulted in the establishment
of the Cooperative Extension Service, one of the most widely copied abroad of
all United States government organizations. (94)

In 1894 the law of conservation of energy was demonstrated by Rubner to be
true in nutrition. (82)

In 1894 the U.S. Congress appropriated $10,000 for investigation of nutritive
value of human foods by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. (82)

In 1894 the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission produced a seven-volume
investigative report of 3,281 pages. In India, millions of people for
centuries have used marijuana, rather than alcohol, for religious purposes,
meditation, and medicine and to produce euphoria. The Indian government was
interested in the long-term effects of marijuana. It obtained testimony on
every aspect of marijuana use from nearly 15,000 individuals. The conclusion
was that marijuana has minimal harmful effects. Suppression would cause
people to turn to more harmful drugs. (88) [See (Cannabis Prohibition Previous
, Next)]

In 1894 William Bateson’s Materials for the Study of Variation emphasized the
importance of discontinuous variations, foreshadowing the rediscovery of
Mendel’s work. (105)

In 1894 the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions
for the Insane changes its name to the American Medio-Psychological
Association.  In a spirit of compromise, one of the leading American
neurologists is invited to give keynote speech at the 1894 meeting.  He
states "... you never came back into line.  Your hospitals are not our
hospitals.  Your ways are not our ways ... I think asylum life is deadly to
the insane." (116)

In 1894 the Immigration Restriction League, which seeks to limit immigration
along eugenic lines, is formed. (116),(117)  It was the first organized
anti-immigrant group.  It was founded in Boston by a small group of
Harvard-educated lawyers and academics;  Prescott Hall and Robert DeCourcey
Ward were the driving forces behind the League.  The Immigration Restriction
League was based on a belief in the superiority of the white races. (140)

In 1894 F. Hoyt Pilcher, superintendent of the Kansas State Asylum for
Idiotic and Imbecile youth begins castrations which causes a scandal after
newspapers print reports. (117)

In 1895 a major voice for conservation appeared, "one of our leading
sportsmen’s magazines," Field and Stream. (66)

In 1895 Theobald Smith produced a hemorrhagic deficiency disease in guinea
pigs deprived of leafy foods. (105)

In 1895 the National Medical Association was founded with 50 state and bout
75 local groups. (1)

In 1895 Madison Grant, along with Theodore Roosevelt and a handful of others
co-founded the New York Zoological Society (now the Wildlife Conservation
Society), and he served as its secretary until 1924. (38)

In 1895 the Rothschilds control 95% of United States military railways. (6)
The Who’s Who mentions J.P. Morgan as owning 50,000 miles of U.S. railways.
(6)

In 1895 the German eugenicist, Dr. Alfred Ploetz published The Excellence of
Our Race and the Protection of the Weak, in which he attempted to show "that
a misdirected humanitarianism was threatening the quality of the race by,
fostering the protection of its weaker numbers." (???),(116)

In 1895 Jacob Reighard and Dean C. Worcester were appointed Director and
Curator respectively of the University of Michigan Museum of Natural History,
(renamed in 1913 by university regents to the Museum of Zoology). (145)

In 1895 Adolf Jost publishes The Right to Death wherein he states that the
decision of life or death of an individual must ultimately belong to the
social organism -- the state. (116)

In 1896 Histidine was discovered. (82)

In 1896 narcotics addiction followed the rising curve of opium consumption
and peaked at 313,000 addicts. (44)

In 1896 the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh was created in 1896 with
original grants of $11,700,000. It served the Pittsburgh, Pa., area as a
general educational agency, including libraries, museums of fine arts and
natural history, a music hall and the Carnegie Institute of Technology of
Carnegie-Mellon University. (1)

In 1896 Carlo Ruta, a professor at the University of Perugia in Italy states
that "vaccination is a world-wide delusion and an unscientific practice, with
consequences measured today with tears and sorrow without end." (6)

In 1896 Charles Eliot Norton, (editor of the North American Review) advocates
for the "painless destruction" of insane and deficient minds. (117)

In 1896 the Massachusetts Audubon Society is founded. By the end of the
following year there are Audubon Societies in ten states and the District of
Columbia. (95)  Its founding is instigated by the Boston society matron
Harriet Lawrence Hemenway. (142)

In 1896, in an appropriations bill for the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Congress establishes the Division of Biological Survey within the
department.  It succeeds the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy
and is renamed the Bureau of Biological Survey in 1905. (142) [see 1885, 1905]

In 1896 the American Academy of Sciences establishes a committee on forests,
chaired by Charles Sprague Sargent, with Gifford Pinchot, (S&B 1889) as its
youngest member.  It takes a census of the nation's forests and calls for
their active management. (142)

In 1896 Connecticut becomes the first state to adopt legislation regulating
marriages on a eugenic basis.  Other states follow, some forbidding the
marriage of insane people. (116)

In 1896 Chemical Composition of American Food Materials by W.O. Atwater and
Bryant, USDA Bulletin 28, was the basic reference on food composition for 44
years. (82) [See note 99]

>From 1897 to 1902 Andrew [Dickson] White, (S&B 1853) is U.S. Ambassador to
Germany. (6),(1),(130)

>From 1897 to 1899 F. Hoyt Pilcher performs castrations on 14 females and 37
males at the Kansas State Asylum for Idiotic and Imbecile Youth. (117)

In 1897 a German named Paul Ehrlich founded the science of hematology and
developed the side-chain theory of immunity. (1)

In 1897, as part of an appropriations bill, Congress passes what is known as
the Forest Management Act or Organic Act, making explicit the purpose of
Forest Reserves (later, National Forests) as resources for lumbering, mining,
and grazing.  This act also places Federal forest administration under the
jurisdiction of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior. (142)

In 1897 Martin Barr discusses benefits of desexualization to the Association
of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded
Persons. (117)

In 1897 Badische produces synthetic indigo on a commercial scale in Germany.
(143)

In 1897 Christiaan Eijkman published his work on the causes of beriberi. (82)
He produced experimental polyneuritis in chickens by feeding them polished
rice, and called attention to rice hulls as containing the preventative agent
of human beriberi. This work identified the first known deficiency disease.
(105)

In 1897 the American Medical Association formally incorporated. It paid a
three dollar fee to the Secretary of the State of Illinois. (48)

In 1897 Illinois banned cocaine sales without prescription. (44)

In 1897 Congress passes literacy requirement for immigrants.  It is vetoed by
President Cleveland. (117)

In 1898 Heroin is introduced and hailed as a non-addicting substitute for
morphine. (1) As an analgesic it is from four to eight times more powerful
than morphine, but it also produces more undesirable side effects in the form
of respiratory depression. Heroin was introduced as a substitute for morphine
to minimize the danger of addiction, but subsequent experience showed it to
be even more dangerous in this respect. It makes addicts more easily than
morphine does, and the addiction is harder to cure. (1) The company that
introduced heroin was Bayer Company of Elberfeld, Germany, which began mass
production of diacetylmorphine, and coined the trade name heroin to market
the new remedy. (44) The Bayer Company introduced heroin as a substitute for
morphine and codeine. By 1917 this drug was found to be greatly addictive and
its use in over-the-counter cough syrups was discontinued. (87)  Chemists at
the Bayer pharmaceutical company in Germany alter the morphine molecule
slightly, creating heroin, which is widely promoted as a cough remedy. (116)

In 1898 the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (made up largely of
state employed chemists who ensured the purity and accurate labeling of
fertilizers), establishes a committee to recommend food standards. The
committee was headed by Harvey W. Wiley, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry in
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. (85)

In April 1898 the Spanish American war began. (1)

In 1898 several blacks and whites die in racial riots in Wilmington, North
Carolina. (160)

In 1898 the National Association of Retail Druggists was formed. (91)

In 1898, [in Egypt] over 10,000 kilos of hashish were seized and over 500
business were closed because their proprietors had allowed hashish to be used
on the premises. In 1908 there were almost 2000 such closings. (106) [See 1884
, (Cannabis Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1898 Hearst newspapers denounce Spaniards, Mexican-Americans, and Latinos
after the seizure of 800,000 acres of Hearst-owned prime Mexican timber land
by the "marijuana smoking army of Pancho Villa." Vigorous slander of the
Mexican people continues in Hearst and other publications for three decades.
Because of Hearst’s personal prejudices against African-Americans and
Hispanics and Hearst’s covert motivations to link them with the proliferation
of an "evil drug", the term "marijuana" – a word totally unfamiliar to the
average hemp-using American – is used exclusively to identify [cannabis]
throughout this public dis-information campaign. (28) [See (Cannabis
Prohibition Previous, Next)]

In 1898 Canada established a board of management of the Marine Biological
Station for a laboratory on a barge in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. (66)

In 1898 a eugenics sterilization bill is unsuccessfully introduced into the
legislature in Michigan, providing for the castration of all inmates of the
Michigan Home for the Feebleminded and Epileptic. (6)  The bill would have
allowed for castration of all inmates of the Michigan Home for the
Feeble-Minded and Epileptic and people who have been convicted of a felony
for the third time. (116)

In 1898 twenty-four male children in Massachusetts are castrated for
"persistent epilepsy and masturbation" and "masturbation with weakness of
mind" among other forms of behavior. (116)

In 1898 the Vaccination Act of 1898 is passed in England. It was the first
law of it’s kind to contain a "conscience clause" although no claims of
conscience were ever approved by magistrates. (6)

In 1898 Gifford Pinchot, (S&B 1889) is appointed chief of the Division of
Forestry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. (142)

In 1898 Henry Fairfield Osborn enunciated the concept of adaptive radiation
in evolution. (105)

On May 17, 1898 Chauncey Depew, (S&B 1856), a New York Central railroad
tycoon, addressed the "Republican stalwarts" in congress concerning
annexation of the Philippines by the U.S.: "A strong feeling spreading over
the land in favor of colonial expansion [is] getting so strong that it will
mean the political death of any man to oppose it pretty soon." (119)

On December 10, 1898 the Philippines, along with Puerto Rico and Guam were
ceded by Spain to the U.S. by the Treaty of Paris at the end of the
Spanish-American War. (1) [See (Philippines, 1900)]

In December 1898 the first Philippine commission is appointed.  Known as the
Schurman Commission, it was chaired by Jacob Gould Schurman.  The remaining
commissioners were Dean C. Worcester, Charles Denby, General Elwell Otis and
Commodore George Dewey.  The commission was operational on March 4. (149)

>From 1899 to 1902 the Boer War is fought between the British and the two Boer
republics, the South African Republic, (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State.
(1)  The Boer War was started by Rothschild's agent, Lord Alfred Milner,
against the wishes of a majority of the British people.  His plans were aided
by another Rothschild agent, Cecil Rhodes, who later left his entire fortune
to the furtherance of the Rothschild program, through the Rhodes Trust, a by
no means infrequent denouement among Rothschild agents, and the basis of the
entire "foundation" empire today.  The British fought a "no prisoners",
scorched earth war, destroying farms, and mercilessly shooting down Boers who
tried to surrender.  It was in this war that the institution of
"concentration camps" was brought to the world, as the British rounded up and
imprisoned in unsanitary, fever-ridden camps anyone thought to be sympathetic
to the Boers, including many women and children, who died by the thousands.
(130)

In 1899 Rosenfeld showed that the consumption of animal fats high in
saturated fats and low in essential fatty acids causes obesity and fatty
degeneration of the inner organs. (13),(42) [See (EFAs Previous, Next)]

In 1899 Emil Fischer began his classic investigations of protein composition.
(82)

In 1899 the Harriman Alaska Expedition explores coastal Alaska by boat
throughout the summer.  The expedition is undertaken by a group of
distinguished citizens, many of whom are actively involved in
conservationism, including numerous scientists under the direction of Clinton
Hart Merriam, (Chief, U.S. Biological Survey), John Muir, John Burroughs,
photographer Edward Curtis, forester Bernhard Fernow, George Bird Grinnell,
and artists Frederick Dellenbaugh and Louis Agassiz Fuertes, funded and
accompanied by railroad magnate Edward H. Harriman and members of his family.
(142)

In 1899 members of the Hague Conference hold long debates on settling of
disputes between states [countries] by legal means or, failing these, by
third-party arbitration. (1)

In 1899 the German chemical firm of Beyer introduced acetylsalicylic acid
under the name "Asprin". (105)

In 1899 Dr. George H. Simmons became head of the American Medical Association
. Though he claimed to be a licensed physician of the Rotunda Hospital of
Dublin, in fact, Dublin Hospital had never issued any licenses, nor was it
authorized to do so. … He soon realized that the medical schools control the
hospitals; the medical examination boards control the medical schools, and so
he expanded the power of the American Medical Association until he had total
control over the medical examination boards. (48)

In 1899 the Marine Hospital Service was directed by Congress to investigate
leprosy in the United States. (80)

On May 1 1899 Dr. Milton Joseph Rosenau succeeded Dr. Kinyoun as director of
the Hygienic Laboratory. (80)

In 1899 the First International Congress of Genetics was held in London. (105)

In 1899 Elihu Root accepted the post of Secretary of War in McKinley’s
cabinet. (1)

In 1899 Harry C. Sharp, as physician at the Indiana State Reformatory devises
the Vasectomy. (117)

Prior to 1900, hemp seed cake was one of the world's principal animal feeds.
(2),(12),(13) [see note 138]
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