Now I have to concentrate and do repeated reading to understand a little.I did not imagine that I would ignite your big bang.The word prodigy is inadequate in your case.I am forwarding this to our granddaughter who is an UG student in the UC,Berkeley. YM
On Sun, Jul 23, 2023 at 12:52 PM Rajaram Krishnamurthy < keyarinc...@gmail.com> wrote: > tHIS PART CONTAINS THE EINSTEIN ADVENTURE .BUT THERE ARE WRITE AND WRONG > IN HIS PHASE.The gen one had the Gravitational only as force; special took > him to space and unexplained light but failure to count the electrons the > anti matter in the explosion. Quantum mechanics , movements of atoms , did > not accept his theory. Just the history. KR IRS 23 7 23 > > Part 2 INFINITY GOOGOL NUMBER > > Theory of general relativity? > > General relativity is physicist Albert Einstein's understanding of how > gravity affects the fabric of space-time. > > The theory, which Einstein published in 1915, expanded the theory of > special relativity that he had published 10 years earlier. Special > relativity argued that space and time are inextricably connected, but that > theory didn't acknowledge the existence of gravity.LAY SOUND > > HOW DOES GENERAL RELATIVITY WORK? > > To understand general relativity, first, let's start with gravity, the > force of attraction that two objects exert on one another. Sir Isaac Newton > quantified gravity in the same text in which he formulated his three laws > of motion, the "Principia." > > The gravitational force tugging between two bodies depends on how massive > each one is and how far apart the two lie, according to NASA Glenn Research > Center. Even as the center of the Earth is pulling you toward it (keeping > you firmly lodged on the ground), your center of mass is pulling back at > the Earth. But the more massive body barely feels the tug from you, while > with your much smaller mass, you find yourself firmly rooted thanks to that > same force. Yet Newton's laws assume that gravity is an innate force of an > object that can act over a distance. > > Albert Einstein, in his theory of special relativity, determined that the > laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers, and he > showed that the speed of light within a vacuum is the same no matter the > speed at which an observer travels, according to Wired. > > As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single > continuum known as space-time. And events that occur at the same time for > one observer could occur at different times for another. > > As he worked out the equations for his general theory of relativity, > Einstein realized that massive objects caused a distortion in space-time. > Imagine setting a large object in the center of a trampoline. The object > would press down into the fabric, causing it to dimple. If you then attempt > to roll a marble around the edge of the trampoline, the marble would spiral > inward toward the body, pulled in much the same way that the gravity of a > planet pulls at rocks in space. > > General relativity is a physical theory about space and time and it has a > beautiful mathematical description. According to general relativity, the > spacetime is a 4-dimensional object that has to obey an equation, called > the Einstein equation, which explains how the matter curves the spacetime. > > General relativity explains gravity, and in this theory, it is not really > a "force" anymore. The gravitational field comes out of the description of > general relativity as a result of the curved spacetime. G IS > GRAVITY > > Minus point > > General relativity has passed all the experimental tests so far, but its > applicability is expected to break down when [the] effects of quantum > mechanics (the theory of the very small particles) should become dominant. > Light bends around a massive object, such as a black hole, causing it to > act as a lens for the things that lie behind it. Astronomers routinely use > this method to study stars and galaxies behind massive objects. > > The Einstein Cross, a quasar in the Pegasus constellation, according to > the European Space Agency (ESA), and is an excellent example of > gravitational lensing. The quasar is seen as it was about 11 billion years > ago; the galaxy that it sits behind is about 10 times closer to Earth. > Because the two objects align so precisely, four images of the quasar > appear around the galaxy because the intense gravity of the galaxy bends > the light coming from the quasar. [ KR BENDING OF LIGHT IS DUE TO THE > CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME WARP AS FLAY LAYERS IN THE SPACE. ] > > The orbit of Mercury is shifting very gradually over time due to the > curvature of space-time around the massive sun, according to NASA. > > As the closest planet to the sun, Mercury’s perihelion (the point along > its orbit that it’s closest to the sun) is predicted to follow a slightly > different direction over time. Under Newton’s predictions, gravitational > forces in the solar system should advance Mercury's precession ( change in > its orbital orientation) is measured to be 5,600 arcseconds per century (1 > arcsecond is equal to 1/3600 of a degree). However, there is a discrepancy > of 43 arcseconds per century, something Einstein's theory of general > relativity accounts for. Using Einstein’s theory of curved space-time, the > precession of Mercury’s perihelion should advance slightly more than under > the predictions of Newton, since planets don’t orbit the sun in a static > elliptical orbit. > > The electromagnetic radiation of an object is stretched out slightly > inside a gravitational field. Think of the sound waves that emanate from a > siren on an emergency vehicle; as the vehicle moves toward an observer, > sound waves are compressed, but as it moves away, they are stretched out, > or redshifted. Known as the Doppler Effect, the same phenomena occurs with > waves of light at all frequencies.Y SOUND > > Einstein predicted that violent events, such as the collision of two black > holes, create ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves. And in > 2016, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) > announced that it had detected such a signal for the first time. > > In 2021 research published in the journal Physical Review X, challenged > several of Einstein's predictions by observing a double-pulsar system > around 2,400 light-years from Earth. Each of the seven predictions of > general relativity was confirmed by the study. > > Pulsars are a type of neutron star that appears to pulse due to beams of > electromagnetic radiation and that are emitting from their magnetic poles. > > The pulsar test subjects spin very fast - around 44 times a second - and > are 30% more massive than the sun but are only 15 miles (around 24 > kilometers) in diameter, making them incredibly dense. This means that > their gravitational pull is immense, for example, on the surface of a > neutron star gravity is around 1 billion times stronger than its pull on > Earth. This makes neutron stars a great test subject to challenge > predictions in Einstein's theories, such as the ability of gravity to bend > light. > > "We follow the propagation of radio photons emitted from a cosmic > lighthouse, a pulsar, and track their movements in the strong gravitational > field of a companion pulsar," Professor Ingrid Stairs from the University > of British Columbia at Vancouver said in a statement. > > "We see for the first time how the light is not only delayed due to a > strong curvature of spacetime around the companion but also that the light > is deflected by a small angle of 0.04 degrees that we can detect. Never > before has such an experiment been conducted at such a high spacetime > curvature" > > Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity > > Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity is one of the most > important papers ever published in the field of physics. Special relativity > is an explanation of how speed affects mass, time and space. The theory > includes a way for the speed of light to define the relationship between > energy and matter — small amounts of mass (m) can be interchangeable with > enormous amounts of energy (E), as defined by the classic equation E = mc^2. > > Special relativity applies to "special" cases — it's mostly used when > discussing huge energies, ultra-fast speeds and astronomical distances, all > without the complications of gravity. Einstein officially added gravity to > his theories in 1915, with the publication of his paper on general > relativity. > > As an object approaches the speed of light, the object's mass becomes > infinite and so does the energy required to move it. That means it is > impossible for any matter to go faster than light travels. This cosmic > speed limit inspires new realms of physics and science fiction, as people > consider travel across vast distances. > > WHAT WAS PHYSICS LIKE BEFORE RELATIVITY? NEWTON > > Before Einstein, astronomers (for the most part) understood the universe > in terms of three laws of motion presented by Isaac Newton in 1686. These > three laws are: > > 1. Objects in motion or at rest remain in the same state unless an > external force imposes change. This is also known as the concept of inertia. > > 2. The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of the object > multiplied by its acceleration. In other words, you can calculate how much > force it takes to move objects with various masses at different speeds. > > 3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. > > Newton's laws proved valid in nearly every application in physics, > according to Encyclopedia Britannica. They formed the basis for our > understanding of mechanics and gravity. > > But some things couldn't be explained by Newton's work: For example, > light. > > To shoehorn the odd behavior of light into Newton's framework for physics > scientists in the 1800s supposed that light must be transmitted through > some medium, which they called the "luminiferous ether." That hypothetical > ether had to be rigid enough to transfer light waves like a guitar string > vibrates with sound, but also completely undetectable in the movements of > planets and stars. > > That was a tall order. Researchers set about trying to detect that > mysterious ether, hoping to understand it better. In 1887, wrote > astrophysicist Ethan Siegal in the Forbes science blog, Starts With a Bang, > physicist Albert A. Michelson and chemist Edward Morley calculated how > Earth's motion through the ether affected how the speed of light is > measured, and unexpectedly found that the speed of light is the same no > matter what Earth's motion is. > > If the speed of light didn't change despite the Earth's movement through > the ether, they concluded, there must be no such thing as ether to begin > with: Light in space moved through a vacuum. > > That meant it couldn't be explained by classical mechanics. Physics needed > a new paradigm. > > HOW DID EINSTEIN COME UP WITH SPECIAL RELATIVITY? > > According to Einstein, in his 1949 book "Autobiographical Notes" (Open > Court, 1999, Centennial Edition), the budding physicist began questioning > the behavior of light when he was just 16 years old. In a thought > experiment as a teenager, he wrote, he imagined chasing a beam of light. > > Classical physics would imply that as the imaginary Einstein sped up to > catch the light, the light wave would eventually come to a relative speed > of zero — the man and the light would be moving at speed together, and he > could see light as a frozen electromagnetic field. But, Einstein wrote, > this contradicted work by another scientist, James Clerk Maxwell, whose > equations required that electromagnetic waves always move at the same speed > in a vacuum: 186,282 miles per second (300,000 > > Instead, Einstein recounted, he sought a unified theory that would make > the rules of physics the same for everyone, everywhere, all the time. > > This, wrote the physicist, led to his eventual musings on the theory of > special relativity, which he broke down into another thought experiment: A > person is standing next to a train track comparing observations of a > lightning storm with a person inside the train. And because this is > physics, of course, the train is moving nearly the speed of light. > > Einstein imagined the train at a point on the track equally between two > trees. If a bolt of lightning hit both trees at the same time, the person > beside the track would see simultaneous strikes. But because they are > moving toward one lightning bolt and away from the other, the person on the > train would see the bolt ahead of the train first, and the bolt behind the > train later. > > Einstein concluded that simultaneity is not absolute, or in other words, > that simultaneous events as seen by one observer could occur at different > times from the perspective of another. It's not lightspeed that changes, he > realized, but time itself that is relative. Time moves differently for > objects in motion than for objects at rest. Meanwhile, the speed of light, > as observed by anyone anywhere in the universe, moving or not moving, is > always the same. > > WHAT DOES E = MC^2 MEAN? > > One of the most famous and well-known equations in all of human history, E > = mc^2, translates to "energy is equal to mass times the speed of light > squared." In other words, wrote PBS Nova, energy (E) and mass (m) are > interchangeable. They are, in fact, just different forms of the same thing. > > But they're not easily exchanged. Because the speed of light is already an > enormous number, and the equation demands that it be multiplied by itself > (or squared) to become even larger, a small amount of mass contains a huge > amount of energy. For example, PBS Nova explained, "If you could turn every > one of the atoms in a paper clip into pure energy — leaving no mass > whatsoever — the paper clip would yield [the equivalent energy of] 18 > kilotons of TNT. That's roughly the size of the bomb that destroyed > Hiroshima in 1945." > > TIME DILATION > > One of the many implications of Einstein's special relativity work is that > time moves relative to the observer. An object in motion experiences time > dilation, meaning that when an object is moving very fast it experiences > time more slowly than when it is at rest. > > But at speeds approaching the speed of light, the effects of time dilation > could be much more apparent. Imagine a 15-year-old leaves her high school > traveling at 99.5% of the speed of light for five years (from the teenage > astronaut's perspective). When the 15-year-old got back to Earth, she would > have aged those 5 years she spent traveling. Her classmates, however, would > be 65 years old — 50 years would have passed on the much slower-moving > planet. > > GPS devices work by calculating a position based on communication with at > least three satellites in distant Earth orbits. Those satellites have to > keep track of incredibly precise time in order to pinpoint a location on > the planet, so they work based on atomic clocks. But because those atomic > clocks are on board satellites that are constantly whizzing through space > at 8,700 mph (14,000 km/h), special relativity means that they tick an > extra 7 microseconds, or 7 millionths of a second, each day, according to > American Physical Society publication Physics Central. In order to maintain > pace with Earth clocks, atomic clocks on GPS satellites need to subtract 7 > microseconds each day. > > With additional effects from general relativity (Einstein's follow-up to > special relativity that incorporates gravity), clocks closer to the center > of a large gravitational mass like Earth tick more slowly than those > farther away. That effect adds microseconds to each day on a GPS atomic > clock, so in the end engineers subtract 7 microseconds and add 45 more back > on. GPS clocks don't tick over to the next day until they have run a total > of 38 microseconds longer than comparable clocks on Earth. > > SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND QUANTUM MECHANICS > > Special relativity and quantum mechanics are two of the most widely > accepted models of how our universe works. But special relativity mostly > pertains to extremely large distances, speeds and objects, uniting them in > a "smooth" model of the universe. Events in special (and general) > relativity are continuous and deterministic, wrote Corey Powell for The > Guardian, which means that every action results in a direct, specific and > local consequence. That's different from quantum mechanics, [KR atomic > jumping] Powell continued: quantum physics are "chunky," with events > occurring in jumps or "quantum leaps" that have probabilistic outcomes, not > definite ones. > > Researchers uniting special relativity and quantum mechanics — the smooth > and the chunky, the very large and the very small — have come up with > fields like relativistic quantum mechanics and, more recently, quantum > field theory to better understand subatomic particles and their > interactions. > > Researchers striving to connect quantum mechanics and general relativity, > on the other hand, consider it to be one of the great unsolved problems in > physics. For decades, many viewed string theory to be the most promising > area of research into a unified theory of all physics. Now, a host of > additional theories exist. For example, one group proposes space-time loops > to link the tiny, chunky quantum world with the wide relativistic universe. > > K Rajaram IRS 23 7 23 (TO BE CONTD) > -- *Mar* -- You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "Thatha_Patty" group. To unsubscribe from this group and stop receiving emails from it, send an email to thatha_patty+unsubscr...@googlegroups.com. To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/thatha_patty/CACDCHCKDyA5Bnr%3DkheP%2BzDmpjVC2ZvuS7ox%2BqK-cwuL33k5Agg%40mail.gmail.com.
