🙏🙏🙏 On Sun, 23 Jul 2023 at 00:46, Markendeya Yeddanapudi < markandeya101...@gmail.com> wrote:
> Now I have to concentrate and do repeated reading to understand a little.I > did not imagine that I would ignite your big bang.The word prodigy is > inadequate in your case.I am forwarding this to our granddaughter who is an > UG student in the UC,Berkeley. > YM > > On Sun, Jul 23, 2023 at 12:52 PM Rajaram Krishnamurthy < > keyarinc...@gmail.com> wrote: > >> tHIS PART CONTAINS THE EINSTEIN ADVENTURE .BUT THERE ARE WRITE AND WRONG >> IN HIS PHASE.The gen one had the Gravitational only as force; special took >> him to space and unexplained light but failure to count the electrons the >> anti matter in the explosion. Quantum mechanics , movements of atoms , did >> not accept his theory. Just the history. KR IRS 23 7 23 >> >> Part 2 INFINITY GOOGOL NUMBER >> >> Theory of general relativity? >> >> General relativity is physicist Albert Einstein's understanding of how >> gravity affects the fabric of space-time. >> >> The theory, which Einstein published in 1915, expanded the theory of >> special relativity that he had published 10 years earlier. Special >> relativity argued that space and time are inextricably connected, but that >> theory didn't acknowledge the existence of gravity.LAY SOUND >> >> HOW DOES GENERAL RELATIVITY WORK? >> >> To understand general relativity, first, let's start with gravity, the >> force of attraction that two objects exert on one another. Sir Isaac Newton >> quantified gravity in the same text in which he formulated his three laws >> of motion, the "Principia." >> >> The gravitational force tugging between two bodies depends on how massive >> each one is and how far apart the two lie, according to NASA Glenn Research >> Center. Even as the center of the Earth is pulling you toward it (keeping >> you firmly lodged on the ground), your center of mass is pulling back at >> the Earth. But the more massive body barely feels the tug from you, while >> with your much smaller mass, you find yourself firmly rooted thanks to that >> same force. Yet Newton's laws assume that gravity is an innate force of an >> object that can act over a distance. >> >> Albert Einstein, in his theory of special relativity, determined that the >> laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers, and he >> showed that the speed of light within a vacuum is the same no matter the >> speed at which an observer travels, according to Wired. >> >> As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single >> continuum known as space-time. And events that occur at the same time for >> one observer could occur at different times for another. >> >> As he worked out the equations for his general theory of relativity, >> Einstein realized that massive objects caused a distortion in space-time. >> Imagine setting a large object in the center of a trampoline. The object >> would press down into the fabric, causing it to dimple. If you then attempt >> to roll a marble around the edge of the trampoline, the marble would spiral >> inward toward the body, pulled in much the same way that the gravity of a >> planet pulls at rocks in space. >> >> General relativity is a physical theory about space and time and it has a >> beautiful mathematical description. According to general relativity, the >> spacetime is a 4-dimensional object that has to obey an equation, called >> the Einstein equation, which explains how the matter curves the spacetime. >> >> General relativity explains gravity, and in this theory, it is not really >> a "force" anymore. The gravitational field comes out of the description of >> general relativity as a result of the curved spacetime. G IS >> GRAVITY >> >> Minus point >> >> General relativity has passed all the experimental tests so far, but its >> applicability is expected to break down when [the] effects of quantum >> mechanics (the theory of the very small particles) should become dominant. >> Light bends around a massive object, such as a black hole, causing it to >> act as a lens for the things that lie behind it. Astronomers routinely use >> this method to study stars and galaxies behind massive objects. >> >> The Einstein Cross, a quasar in the Pegasus constellation, according to >> the European Space Agency (ESA), and is an excellent example of >> gravitational lensing. The quasar is seen as it was about 11 billion years >> ago; the galaxy that it sits behind is about 10 times closer to Earth. >> Because the two objects align so precisely, four images of the quasar >> appear around the galaxy because the intense gravity of the galaxy bends >> the light coming from the quasar. [ KR BENDING OF LIGHT IS DUE TO THE >> CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME WARP AS FLAY LAYERS IN THE SPACE. ] >> >> The orbit of Mercury is shifting very gradually over time due to the >> curvature of space-time around the massive sun, according to NASA. >> >> As the closest planet to the sun, Mercury’s perihelion (the point along >> its orbit that it’s closest to the sun) is predicted to follow a slightly >> different direction over time. Under Newton’s predictions, gravitational >> forces in the solar system should advance Mercury's precession ( change in >> its orbital orientation) is measured to be 5,600 arcseconds per century (1 >> arcsecond is equal to 1/3600 of a degree). However, there is a discrepancy >> of 43 arcseconds per century, something Einstein's theory of general >> relativity accounts for. Using Einstein’s theory of curved space-time, the >> precession of Mercury’s perihelion should advance slightly more than under >> the predictions of Newton, since planets don’t orbit the sun in a static >> elliptical orbit. >> >> The electromagnetic radiation of an object is stretched out slightly >> inside a gravitational field. Think of the sound waves that emanate from a >> siren on an emergency vehicle; as the vehicle moves toward an observer, >> sound waves are compressed, but as it moves away, they are stretched out, >> or redshifted. Known as the Doppler Effect, the same phenomena occurs with >> waves of light at all frequencies.Y SOUND >> >> Einstein predicted that violent events, such as the collision of two >> black holes, create ripples in space-time known as gravitational waves. And >> in 2016, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) >> announced that it had detected such a signal for the first time. >> >> In 2021 research published in the journal Physical Review X, challenged >> several of Einstein's predictions by observing a double-pulsar system >> around 2,400 light-years from Earth. Each of the seven predictions of >> general relativity was confirmed by the study. >> >> Pulsars are a type of neutron star that appears to pulse due to beams of >> electromagnetic radiation and that are emitting from their magnetic poles. >> >> The pulsar test subjects spin very fast - around 44 times a second - and >> are 30% more massive than the sun but are only 15 miles (around 24 >> kilometers) in diameter, making them incredibly dense. This means that >> their gravitational pull is immense, for example, on the surface of a >> neutron star gravity is around 1 billion times stronger than its pull on >> Earth. This makes neutron stars a great test subject to challenge >> predictions in Einstein's theories, such as the ability of gravity to bend >> light. >> >> "We follow the propagation of radio photons emitted from a cosmic >> lighthouse, a pulsar, and track their movements in the strong gravitational >> field of a companion pulsar," Professor Ingrid Stairs from the University >> of British Columbia at Vancouver said in a statement. >> >> "We see for the first time how the light is not only delayed due to a >> strong curvature of spacetime around the companion but also that the light >> is deflected by a small angle of 0.04 degrees that we can detect. Never >> before has such an experiment been conducted at such a high spacetime >> curvature" >> >> Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity >> >> Albert Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity is one of the most >> important papers ever published in the field of physics. Special relativity >> is an explanation of how speed affects mass, time and space. The theory >> includes a way for the speed of light to define the relationship between >> energy and matter — small amounts of mass (m) can be interchangeable with >> enormous amounts of energy (E), as defined by the classic equation E = mc^2. >> >> Special relativity applies to "special" cases — it's mostly used when >> discussing huge energies, ultra-fast speeds and astronomical distances, all >> without the complications of gravity. Einstein officially added gravity to >> his theories in 1915, with the publication of his paper on general >> relativity. >> >> As an object approaches the speed of light, the object's mass becomes >> infinite and so does the energy required to move it. That means it is >> impossible for any matter to go faster than light travels. This cosmic >> speed limit inspires new realms of physics and science fiction, as people >> consider travel across vast distances. >> >> WHAT WAS PHYSICS LIKE BEFORE RELATIVITY? NEWTON >> >> Before Einstein, astronomers (for the most part) understood the universe >> in terms of three laws of motion presented by Isaac Newton in 1686. These >> three laws are: >> >> 1. Objects in motion or at rest remain in the same state unless an >> external force imposes change. This is also known as the concept of inertia. >> >> 2. The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of the object >> multiplied by its acceleration. In other words, you can calculate how much >> force it takes to move objects with various masses at different speeds. >> >> 3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. >> >> Newton's laws proved valid in nearly every application in physics, >> according to Encyclopedia Britannica. They formed the basis for our >> understanding of mechanics and gravity. >> >> But some things couldn't be explained by Newton's work: For example, >> light. >> >> To shoehorn the odd behavior of light into Newton's framework for physics >> scientists in the 1800s supposed that light must be transmitted through >> some medium, which they called the "luminiferous ether." That hypothetical >> ether had to be rigid enough to transfer light waves like a guitar string >> vibrates with sound, but also completely undetectable in the movements of >> planets and stars. >> >> That was a tall order. Researchers set about trying to detect that >> mysterious ether, hoping to understand it better. In 1887, wrote >> astrophysicist Ethan Siegal in the Forbes science blog, Starts With a Bang, >> physicist Albert A. Michelson and chemist Edward Morley calculated how >> Earth's motion through the ether affected how the speed of light is >> measured, and unexpectedly found that the speed of light is the same no >> matter what Earth's motion is. >> >> If the speed of light didn't change despite the Earth's movement through >> the ether, they concluded, there must be no such thing as ether to begin >> with: Light in space moved through a vacuum. >> >> That meant it couldn't be explained by classical mechanics. Physics >> needed a new paradigm. >> >> HOW DID EINSTEIN COME UP WITH SPECIAL RELATIVITY? >> >> According to Einstein, in his 1949 book "Autobiographical Notes" (Open >> Court, 1999, Centennial Edition), the budding physicist began questioning >> the behavior of light when he was just 16 years old. In a thought >> experiment as a teenager, he wrote, he imagined chasing a beam of light. >> >> Classical physics would imply that as the imaginary Einstein sped up to >> catch the light, the light wave would eventually come to a relative speed >> of zero — the man and the light would be moving at speed together, and he >> could see light as a frozen electromagnetic field. But, Einstein wrote, >> this contradicted work by another scientist, James Clerk Maxwell, whose >> equations required that electromagnetic waves always move at the same speed >> in a vacuum: 186,282 miles per second (300,000 >> >> Instead, Einstein recounted, he sought a unified theory that would make >> the rules of physics the same for everyone, everywhere, all the time. >> >> This, wrote the physicist, led to his eventual musings on the theory of >> special relativity, which he broke down into another thought experiment: A >> person is standing next to a train track comparing observations of a >> lightning storm with a person inside the train. And because this is >> physics, of course, the train is moving nearly the speed of light. >> >> Einstein imagined the train at a point on the track equally between two >> trees. If a bolt of lightning hit both trees at the same time, the person >> beside the track would see simultaneous strikes. But because they are >> moving toward one lightning bolt and away from the other, the person on the >> train would see the bolt ahead of the train first, and the bolt behind the >> train later. >> >> Einstein concluded that simultaneity is not absolute, or in other words, >> that simultaneous events as seen by one observer could occur at different >> times from the perspective of another. It's not lightspeed that changes, he >> realized, but time itself that is relative. Time moves differently for >> objects in motion than for objects at rest. Meanwhile, the speed of light, >> as observed by anyone anywhere in the universe, moving or not moving, is >> always the same. >> >> WHAT DOES E = MC^2 MEAN? >> >> One of the most famous and well-known equations in all of human history, >> E = mc^2, translates to "energy is equal to mass times the speed of light >> squared." In other words, wrote PBS Nova, energy (E) and mass (m) are >> interchangeable. They are, in fact, just different forms of the same thing. >> >> But they're not easily exchanged. Because the speed of light is already >> an enormous number, and the equation demands that it be multiplied by >> itself (or squared) to become even larger, a small amount of mass contains >> a huge amount of energy. For example, PBS Nova explained, "If you could >> turn every one of the atoms in a paper clip into pure energy — leaving no >> mass whatsoever — the paper clip would yield [the equivalent energy of] 18 >> kilotons of TNT. That's roughly the size of the bomb that destroyed >> Hiroshima in 1945." >> >> TIME DILATION >> >> One of the many implications of Einstein's special relativity work is >> that time moves relative to the observer. An object in motion experiences >> time dilation, meaning that when an object is moving very fast it >> experiences time more slowly than when it is at rest. >> >> But at speeds approaching the speed of light, the effects of time >> dilation could be much more apparent. Imagine a 15-year-old leaves her high >> school traveling at 99.5% of the speed of light for five years (from the >> teenage astronaut's perspective). When the 15-year-old got back to Earth, >> she would have aged those 5 years she spent traveling. Her classmates, >> however, would be 65 years old — 50 years would have passed on the much >> slower-moving planet. >> >> GPS devices work by calculating a position based on communication with at >> least three satellites in distant Earth orbits. Those satellites have to >> keep track of incredibly precise time in order to pinpoint a location on >> the planet, so they work based on atomic clocks. But because those atomic >> clocks are on board satellites that are constantly whizzing through space >> at 8,700 mph (14,000 km/h), special relativity means that they tick an >> extra 7 microseconds, or 7 millionths of a second, each day, according to >> American Physical Society publication Physics Central. In order to maintain >> pace with Earth clocks, atomic clocks on GPS satellites need to subtract 7 >> microseconds each day. >> >> With additional effects from general relativity (Einstein's follow-up to >> special relativity that incorporates gravity), clocks closer to the center >> of a large gravitational mass like Earth tick more slowly than those >> farther away. That effect adds microseconds to each day on a GPS atomic >> clock, so in the end engineers subtract 7 microseconds and add 45 more back >> on. GPS clocks don't tick over to the next day until they have run a total >> of 38 microseconds longer than comparable clocks on Earth. >> >> SPECIAL RELATIVITY AND QUANTUM MECHANICS >> >> Special relativity and quantum mechanics are two of the most widely >> accepted models of how our universe works. But special relativity mostly >> pertains to extremely large distances, speeds and objects, uniting them in >> a "smooth" model of the universe. Events in special (and general) >> relativity are continuous and deterministic, wrote Corey Powell for The >> Guardian, which means that every action results in a direct, specific and >> local consequence. That's different from quantum mechanics, [KR atomic >> jumping] Powell continued: quantum physics are "chunky," with events >> occurring in jumps or "quantum leaps" that have probabilistic outcomes, not >> definite ones. >> >> Researchers uniting special relativity and quantum mechanics — the smooth >> and the chunky, the very large and the very small — have come up with >> fields like relativistic quantum mechanics and, more recently, quantum >> field theory to better understand subatomic particles and their >> interactions. >> >> Researchers striving to connect quantum mechanics and general relativity, >> on the other hand, consider it to be one of the great unsolved problems in >> physics. For decades, many viewed string theory to be the most promising >> area of research into a unified theory of all physics. Now, a host of >> additional theories exist. For example, one group proposes space-time loops >> to link the tiny, chunky quantum world with the wide relativistic universe. >> >> K Rajaram IRS 23 7 23 (TO BE CONTD) >> > > > -- > *Mar* > -- You received this message because you are subscribed to the Google Groups "Thatha_Patty" group. To unsubscribe from this group and stop receiving emails from it, send an email to thatha_patty+unsubscr...@googlegroups.com. To view this discussion on the web visit https://groups.google.com/d/msgid/thatha_patty/CAL5XZooC06a5NbV3nX2d0q%2BwwUhtuYJgkT7VYUaE%3DyP3sf_hjw%40mail.gmail.com.
