Wesley,
> OK let me check my chemistry. Hydrocarbon plus
water to CO2 and hydrogen.
Not that simple. You must have been playing "hooky"
(as we say in states), the day your chem prof mentioned carbon monoxide,
hydronium ions, nitrogen hydride and hydrogen peroxide ions, and the numerous
(about 30) intermediates. These intermediates have a short lifetime - but
coincidentally - a slightly longer lifetime than the transit time from
the reformer to the ICE power stroke. The only problem is avoiding premature
ignition (keeping the mix very "lean")
> The reformer uses energy so it can't be
more efficient than
> say a normal car and its still making greenhouse gases.
> say a normal car and its still making greenhouse gases.
Totally wrong logic. The reformer can use energy at
close to 100% efficiency, if necessary (it often isn't even necessary as there
is a great surplus of unused heat). All of the reformer heat of can come from
unused exhaust heat, but even that is unnecessary as it takes remarkably little
heat to reform gasoline. The auto engine of the car is at only 25%
eff. using gasoline in an ICE, because for one thing the unburned
hydrocarbons are as much as 15%, depending on RPM. And for another thing the
compressibility of CO2 makes it an poor medium to use for Carnot expansion.
Steam is about 40% more effective for expanding than CO2 and consequently, a
hydrogen powered ICE like the Ford Focus.
Too much heat at high pressure, can and is *wasted*
all the time in an IC engine. One only needs enough heat to insure complete
combustion and to raise gas pressure in the cylinder to the optimum level, which
is surprisingly low. Here's an off-beat spin on ICE thermodynamics, that even if
you understand what "critical pressure" is all about, may not have
registered.
In the critical region, gases can become so compressible that they loose their ability to transfer their heat energy dynamically to the surroundings. And some gases get to that state PDQ. Carbon dioxide, for instance, has a *critical pressure* of only a measly ~1000 psi, over three times lower than steam, and it has a molecular weight that is way over double steam and a velocity that is tortoise-like in comparison. In short, it's probably the worst medium for converting heat from combustion into mechanical energy that one could imagine. Its a miracle in itself that an IC engine burning hydrocarbon can even get to 25% efficiency.
The Ideal Gas Law was first written in 1834 by Emil Clapeyron. Because it is a simple linear relationship, and works well at STP, it has misled many people to think thermodynamics is a firm and clear-cut. science. Unfortunately, the Gas Law doesn't work in any situation where actual combustion takes place. And it takes no account of thermochemical interaction, especially of short-lived intermediate species..
A typical IC engine requires a compression ratio of 10-1 to get up to 85%complete combustion of hydrocarbons (that's about the max, so there is usually 15% wasted off the top because of the strong molecular bonding of hydrocarbons) but when you burn hydrogen, you can get near-complete combustion at far less than the150 psi needed for gasoline. The ~1000 psi critical pressure for CO2 is only about 6 times higher then the compressed gas in the IC cylinder, so in practice - lets say that x-amount of calories from burning carbon will raise the gas pressure from 150 to 1000, then adding more is basically a waste. Catch-22, if you try to ignite x amount, it often won't even burn, so you have to use 3x just to get ignition. Do you see the problem here? You have already expended three times more fuel than you needed to raise the temperature of the gas to the optimum level, and that extra heat you added cannot be returned efficiently because the CO2 has exceeded it critical pressure.
It's not that grim in practice because as the piston goes down and pressure drops, more and more of the formerly wasted heat can be returned. But because of these insane requirements, we have been misled into thinking that high compression is efficient, when in truth it is only efficient because we had to use carbon in the fuel. It would be far more efficient to use a lower compression ratio and a better fuel for the ICE ! HYDROGEN ! Forget your fuel cell. The ICE can be just as efficient in normal use burning hydrogen.
In the critical region, gases can become so compressible that they loose their ability to transfer their heat energy dynamically to the surroundings. And some gases get to that state PDQ. Carbon dioxide, for instance, has a *critical pressure* of only a measly ~1000 psi, over three times lower than steam, and it has a molecular weight that is way over double steam and a velocity that is tortoise-like in comparison. In short, it's probably the worst medium for converting heat from combustion into mechanical energy that one could imagine. Its a miracle in itself that an IC engine burning hydrocarbon can even get to 25% efficiency.
The Ideal Gas Law was first written in 1834 by Emil Clapeyron. Because it is a simple linear relationship, and works well at STP, it has misled many people to think thermodynamics is a firm and clear-cut. science. Unfortunately, the Gas Law doesn't work in any situation where actual combustion takes place. And it takes no account of thermochemical interaction, especially of short-lived intermediate species..
A typical IC engine requires a compression ratio of 10-1 to get up to 85%complete combustion of hydrocarbons (that's about the max, so there is usually 15% wasted off the top because of the strong molecular bonding of hydrocarbons) but when you burn hydrogen, you can get near-complete combustion at far less than the150 psi needed for gasoline. The ~1000 psi critical pressure for CO2 is only about 6 times higher then the compressed gas in the IC cylinder, so in practice - lets say that x-amount of calories from burning carbon will raise the gas pressure from 150 to 1000, then adding more is basically a waste. Catch-22, if you try to ignite x amount, it often won't even burn, so you have to use 3x just to get ignition. Do you see the problem here? You have already expended three times more fuel than you needed to raise the temperature of the gas to the optimum level, and that extra heat you added cannot be returned efficiently because the CO2 has exceeded it critical pressure.
It's not that grim in practice because as the piston goes down and pressure drops, more and more of the formerly wasted heat can be returned. But because of these insane requirements, we have been misled into thinking that high compression is efficient, when in truth it is only efficient because we had to use carbon in the fuel. It would be far more efficient to use a lower compression ratio and a better fuel for the ICE ! HYDROGEN ! Forget your fuel cell. The ICE can be just as efficient in normal use burning hydrogen.
>If its only a small amount of hydrocarbons then
they hiding something up their
> sleeves; browns gas perhaps?
> sleeves; browns gas perhaps?
On this you may be correct. There are some
alternative hypothetical sources for the "extra" energy of water-reformed fuels
(I am enclosing an old postings FWIW below)
> Always wondered what that would do in
a reformer. Oops just remembered I failed chemistry.
Ah....
....then here is more speculation and fringe
information than you could possibly want, but given the magic of cut-and-paste,
is very easy for me to forward. The following is
a paraphrased collection thoughts taken from various past internet
postings, which may provide an even more confused picture of where we are going
with some of these "fringe" water-fuel theories. Basically, there are
numerous possibilities that exist now for locating a source of "excess energy"
or "free energy" which may exist in some water-fuel concepts like "aqua-fuel" TM
or this Russian copy-cat stuff.
Some possibilities we have considered for putative
OU (overunity) in hydrogen combustion (or water-reformed
gasoline) include:
1) "beta-aether" (ZPE, Casimir) this includes "brittle mechanical failure"
1) "beta-aether" (ZPE, Casimir) this includes "brittle mechanical failure"
due to Casimir
2) Any number of QM low-probability interactions involving the proton, such
as quantum tunneling
3) Hydrino... the "below ground state" hydrogen isomer
4) EVs (the "charge cluster" electron phenomena of Ken Shoulders)...
5) Some variation of LENR (low energy nuclear reaction) phenomena
involving the deuterons in water (such as deuterium "stripping")
6) Other "quasi-nuclear" or "supra-chemical" phenomena that have not been researched
such as F. Sparber's electronium triad (*e-)
2) Any number of QM low-probability interactions involving the proton, such
as quantum tunneling
3) Hydrino... the "below ground state" hydrogen isomer
4) EVs (the "charge cluster" electron phenomena of Ken Shoulders)...
5) Some variation of LENR (low energy nuclear reaction) phenomena
involving the deuterons in water (such as deuterium "stripping")
6) Other "quasi-nuclear" or "supra-chemical" phenomena that have not been researched
such as F. Sparber's electronium triad (*e-)
But MOST probably: we are dealing with a mélange - an accumulated range of lower probability interactions (QM based) between several, of the above mechanisms... on top of very advantageous chemistry which is not seen with straight hydrocarbon combustion.
Unfortunately, nobody likes to consider the possibility that numerous highly speculative new mechanisms, none of which are that well-understood or widely accepted, could be at work in the (seemingly) simplest of (actually complicated) devices... The bottom line is in the results.
I think now we are seeing real results, so that
makes some of the following less than speculative. "Reductionism" in science
probably reached its limits with Quantum Mechanics, and now we must start to
logically rebuilt the complexity we were once so desirous of eliminating... such
as by tying in QM to real combustion chemistry. The only three reductionist
principles that seem to be at work in the utilization of water-enhanced-fuel are
firstly, a VACUUM, or partial vacuum, especially a vacuum resulting in PHASE
CHANGE of water, particularly a phase-change that is juxtaposed instantaneously
against an ELECTRIC FIELD...such as Redox changes due to carbonate acidity and
peroxide bases. This must be immediately followed by compression to the extent
that Casimir forces come into play, if not the hydrino. The vacuum-collapse
sequence is also seen in sonoluminescence.
Randell Mills' has developed a complete theory of "below ground state" hydrogen, which suggests that when properly catalyzed, hydrogen can deliver more energy than the energy of combustion. The website is thorough and complex (and occasionally wrong) in both theory and application:
http://www.blacklightpower.com/
It would take a very intelligent person a great deal of time to digest these details, many of which are in error, but it is worth the effort, even in the context of an automotive ICE, and fuel reforming, which cannot be covered by Mills patents. But before investing too much time in this, have a look at this graphic representation of something even more far-out - exploding water - an "Ice Bomb" :
http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/demonstrations/Gen_Chem_Pages/10liquidsnsolidpage/ice_bomb.htm
The ice bomb explosion shown here is not particularly violent but it does fracture an iron sphere - it is offered as a metaphor for the more numerous mini-ice-capacitor-bombs that may result when electrolyzed water vapor (with or without hydrocarbons) is entrained in the air intake of an ICE (internal combustion engine) is made to explode. This is part of the success of the Zenion experiments, mentioned by Mark Goldes where over 100 MPG was seen.
Randell Mills' has developed a complete theory of "below ground state" hydrogen, which suggests that when properly catalyzed, hydrogen can deliver more energy than the energy of combustion. The website is thorough and complex (and occasionally wrong) in both theory and application:
http://www.blacklightpower.com/
It would take a very intelligent person a great deal of time to digest these details, many of which are in error, but it is worth the effort, even in the context of an automotive ICE, and fuel reforming, which cannot be covered by Mills patents. But before investing too much time in this, have a look at this graphic representation of something even more far-out - exploding water - an "Ice Bomb" :
http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/demonstrations/Gen_Chem_Pages/10liquidsnsolidpage/ice_bomb.htm
The ice bomb explosion shown here is not particularly violent but it does fracture an iron sphere - it is offered as a metaphor for the more numerous mini-ice-capacitor-bombs that may result when electrolyzed water vapor (with or without hydrocarbons) is entrained in the air intake of an ICE (internal combustion engine) is made to explode. This is part of the success of the Zenion experiments, mentioned by Mark Goldes where over 100 MPG was seen.
Every mole of water (18 grams) can contain as many
as 10^18 of these mini-bombs that can be forced by a vacuum into a phase change
- going from liquid to gas (via transient nanometer solid ice), possibly
encapsulating an electric charge, and then immediately sublimating into
gas. On expanding to 1000 times its previous volume, driving the piston of the
ICE, while at the same time, seeming to circumvent thermodynamic "laws" we can
also suggest that nascent hydrogen, i.e a bare proton just as it is split-off
from a water molecule, can under certain circumstances be induced by added
"charge" to give up more energy than it does in normal combustion. This might be
facilitated by dropping below the normal ground state into a "hydrino," and
transferring a high energy UV photon in the process.
The hydrino forming process may be the consequence of "beta-aether" pressure combined with partial-vacuum electrolysis. This idea goes beyond Randell Mills' theory, but accepts the reality of the hydrino, which has enough electron affinity to either form a hydride having an ionization energy of about .7 eV, or far more likely, to bond to the negative polar end of a water molecule, giving a hydronium molecule, H2O-Hy which is closer to a true *molecule,* than an ion, and which is stable to .7 eV.
The photon emitted is the just the right energy to be immediately recaptured, so the process can repeat itself several times, but there are enough losses that the mechanism cannot be a self-sustaining chain reaction. BUT the beauty of this proposed mechanism is that phase change can occur at two different locations in a converted ICE: first in the electrolysis chamber and secondly in the combustion chamber itself, using the two different phase changes of H2O. In both locations we find the two needed ingredients for the anomaly: water phase change and an electric field.
As mentioned, once electrolysis begins AT A PARTIAL VACUUM, some few hydrinos will be formed. Hydrino formation requires a vacuum to be efficient. The UV photons emitted are just at the right energy to be absorbed by more water vapor to split off more protons, to repeat the process whenever three nascent protons are juxtaposed. This reaction, and others, goes on in the electrolysis or reformer cell, adjacent to the intake port.
Immediately after intake, in the combustion chamber, when a spark or other arc discharge ignites the hydronium + hydrogen peroxide + O2 +other short-lived chemicals which have previously been created in the electrolysis chamber, then more hydrinos and more UV can be created and subsequently absorbed by the "mini-ice-bombs," accelerating their expansion at a rate that is in keeping with the several thousand RPMs of an ICE (normally, the expansion reaction would be too slow).
Under these circumstances, this UV radiation from hydrino formation is adequate to accelerate the rapid heating of a solid, such as finely divided water-ice so that it sublimates very quickly with cavitation effects. In the process, pressure is converted into mechanical energy by means of a resultant high-ratio expansion of a solid into a gas to drive a piston or turbine. And you will find none of this in any textbook....
The following is an abstract from Hiroshi Yamamoto which deals with hydrino formation in the presence of oxygen ions.
A CATALYTIC ROLE OF ATOMIC OXYGEN ON ANOMALOUS HEAT GENERATION
Introduction
Dr. Randell Mills demonstrated that hydrogen atoms can achieve lower states than ground state by a resonant collision with a near by atom or
combination of atoms having the capability to absorb the energy to effect the transition, namely, an integer multiple of the potential energy of
atomic hydrogen, m(27.2eV) (m=integer) (1) .
He named this shrunken hydrogen atom "hydrino" and claims that this hydrino can be a catalyst to shrink other hydrinos to further lower states. More attention is now being paid to neutron like particles for the initiation of cold fusion. It is anticipated that well shrunken "hydrinos" can be deemed as quasi-neutrons because the electron with a tighter orbit can neutralize the positive charge of proton.
A catalytic role of atomic oxygen
The author postulated that atomic oxygen can be a good catalyst for
"hydrinos" production because ionization energy of hydrogen and oxygen is very close as is shown below.
Hydrogen =13.598 eV, Oxygen =13.618 eV
It can be expected that the following reactions can take place (may be
displayed incorrectly):
O + O + H -> h[n=1/2] + 2 O+ + 2 e- ---(1)
H + H + O -> H[n=1/2] + H+ + O+ + 2e- ---(2)
H + H + H -> H[n=1/2] + 2 H+ + 2 e- ---(3)
D + D + D -> D[n=1/2] + 2 D+ + 2 e- ---(4)
D + D + O -> D[n=1/2] + D++ O++ 2 e- ---(5)
D + O + O -> D[n=1/2] + 2 O+ + 2 e- ---(6)
H[n=1/2], D[n=1/2] designates a hydrogen whose electron orbit is shrunken to 1/2 the radius of a normal one and these will be shrunken further as reaction continues. These reactions explain anomalous heat generation but no nuclear ash.
Advantages of atomic oxygen as catalyst. As is shown in the above equation, hydrogen (deuterium) itself is a good candidate for catalyst, but the oxygen atom is about 2 times bigger than the hydrogen atom, and the probability of multi-body collision of 3 atoms is almost one order bigger than hydrogen atom.
Some verification of the postulation
-Anomalous combustion. It had been shown that this postulation could be applied to the explanation of several anomalous combustion phenomena that can't be explained by current theories(2).
-Anomalous heat generation in proton conductive ceramics(3)
The hydrino forming process may be the consequence of "beta-aether" pressure combined with partial-vacuum electrolysis. This idea goes beyond Randell Mills' theory, but accepts the reality of the hydrino, which has enough electron affinity to either form a hydride having an ionization energy of about .7 eV, or far more likely, to bond to the negative polar end of a water molecule, giving a hydronium molecule, H2O-Hy which is closer to a true *molecule,* than an ion, and which is stable to .7 eV.
The photon emitted is the just the right energy to be immediately recaptured, so the process can repeat itself several times, but there are enough losses that the mechanism cannot be a self-sustaining chain reaction. BUT the beauty of this proposed mechanism is that phase change can occur at two different locations in a converted ICE: first in the electrolysis chamber and secondly in the combustion chamber itself, using the two different phase changes of H2O. In both locations we find the two needed ingredients for the anomaly: water phase change and an electric field.
As mentioned, once electrolysis begins AT A PARTIAL VACUUM, some few hydrinos will be formed. Hydrino formation requires a vacuum to be efficient. The UV photons emitted are just at the right energy to be absorbed by more water vapor to split off more protons, to repeat the process whenever three nascent protons are juxtaposed. This reaction, and others, goes on in the electrolysis or reformer cell, adjacent to the intake port.
Immediately after intake, in the combustion chamber, when a spark or other arc discharge ignites the hydronium + hydrogen peroxide + O2 +other short-lived chemicals which have previously been created in the electrolysis chamber, then more hydrinos and more UV can be created and subsequently absorbed by the "mini-ice-bombs," accelerating their expansion at a rate that is in keeping with the several thousand RPMs of an ICE (normally, the expansion reaction would be too slow).
Under these circumstances, this UV radiation from hydrino formation is adequate to accelerate the rapid heating of a solid, such as finely divided water-ice so that it sublimates very quickly with cavitation effects. In the process, pressure is converted into mechanical energy by means of a resultant high-ratio expansion of a solid into a gas to drive a piston or turbine. And you will find none of this in any textbook....
The following is an abstract from Hiroshi Yamamoto which deals with hydrino formation in the presence of oxygen ions.
A CATALYTIC ROLE OF ATOMIC OXYGEN ON ANOMALOUS HEAT GENERATION
Introduction
Dr. Randell Mills demonstrated that hydrogen atoms can achieve lower states than ground state by a resonant collision with a near by atom or
combination of atoms having the capability to absorb the energy to effect the transition, namely, an integer multiple of the potential energy of
atomic hydrogen, m(27.2eV) (m=integer) (1) .
He named this shrunken hydrogen atom "hydrino" and claims that this hydrino can be a catalyst to shrink other hydrinos to further lower states. More attention is now being paid to neutron like particles for the initiation of cold fusion. It is anticipated that well shrunken "hydrinos" can be deemed as quasi-neutrons because the electron with a tighter orbit can neutralize the positive charge of proton.
A catalytic role of atomic oxygen
The author postulated that atomic oxygen can be a good catalyst for
"hydrinos" production because ionization energy of hydrogen and oxygen is very close as is shown below.
Hydrogen =13.598 eV, Oxygen =13.618 eV
It can be expected that the following reactions can take place (may be
displayed incorrectly):
O + O + H -> h[n=1/2] + 2 O+ + 2 e- ---(1)
H + H + O -> H[n=1/2] + H+ + O+ + 2e- ---(2)
H + H + H -> H[n=1/2] + 2 H+ + 2 e- ---(3)
D + D + D -> D[n=1/2] + 2 D+ + 2 e- ---(4)
D + D + O -> D[n=1/2] + D++ O++ 2 e- ---(5)
D + O + O -> D[n=1/2] + 2 O+ + 2 e- ---(6)
H[n=1/2], D[n=1/2] designates a hydrogen whose electron orbit is shrunken to 1/2 the radius of a normal one and these will be shrunken further as reaction continues. These reactions explain anomalous heat generation but no nuclear ash.
Advantages of atomic oxygen as catalyst. As is shown in the above equation, hydrogen (deuterium) itself is a good candidate for catalyst, but the oxygen atom is about 2 times bigger than the hydrogen atom, and the probability of multi-body collision of 3 atoms is almost one order bigger than hydrogen atom.
Some verification of the postulation
-Anomalous combustion. It had been shown that this postulation could be applied to the explanation of several anomalous combustion phenomena that can't be explained by current theories(2).
-Anomalous heat generation in proton conductive ceramics(3)
-Nuclear transmutation induced by CaO It was
reported that a multi-layer cathode made of Pd, CaO and Pd has very good
reproducibility of nuclear transmutation and CaO has a key role in this
reaction(5). It is not clear how strongly oxygen atoms are bound in CaO, but it
is well expected that the same phenomenon as is the case for proton conductive
ceramics has taken place.
Conclusion
It has been shown that atomic oxygen can be a good catalyst for generation of "Hydrino". This will not occur in an ICE with unreformed gasoline, for any number of reasone involving time and pressure. However, when hydrocarbons are reformed immediately prior to intake in an ICE, the stage is set for many supra-chemical reactions.
References
(1) Mills,R. The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics,
Blacklight Power Inc., 1999
(2) Yamamoto, H., Explanation of Anomalous Combustion of Brown's Gas using Dr. Mills' Hydrino Theory , SAE1999-01-3325
(3) Biberian, J., "Electrolysis of LaAlO3 Single Crystals and Ceramics in a
Deuteriated Atmosphere", Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Cold Fusion,1998
(4) Yamamoto,H., A Catalytic Role of Atomic Oxygen on Anomalous Heat Generation Induced in Proton Conductive Ceramics under Hydrogen Atmosphere, JCF2 Abstract NO.25,2000.
(5) Iwamura, Y. et, al., "Detection of Anomalous Elements, X-ray and Excess Heat Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium through Multi-layer Cathode(Pd/CaO/Pd)", Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Cold Fusion, 1998.
As you can see, this hypothesized catalytic hydrino boosting process is complex, overunity, and pretty far out there on the fringes of accepted science...if it were not, the puzzle of water-as-fuel booster would have been solved long ago. And although this particular explanation is somewhat new - the numerous claims for auto engines running on water are far from new. In fact, though you may not realize it, these claims of water-as-fuel have been around for at least fifty years in the USA, but recently the claims seem to be on the rise internationally, so we may be on the cusp of a new paradigm in energy conversion.
I believe the independent "garage inventor," will be instrumental - and most likely, inventors in Europe or Asia where the relative cost of petroleum is much higher, will be most highly motivated. When combined with the *power of the internet* to disseminate speculation, un-publishable theories, and numerous test results, positive and negative, things could advance quicker than in any big bureaucracy ... not that Tony Blair runs a big bureaucracy or anything like that.... ;-)
Conclusion
It has been shown that atomic oxygen can be a good catalyst for generation of "Hydrino". This will not occur in an ICE with unreformed gasoline, for any number of reasone involving time and pressure. However, when hydrocarbons are reformed immediately prior to intake in an ICE, the stage is set for many supra-chemical reactions.
References
(1) Mills,R. The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics,
Blacklight Power Inc., 1999
(2) Yamamoto, H., Explanation of Anomalous Combustion of Brown's Gas using Dr. Mills' Hydrino Theory , SAE1999-01-3325
(3) Biberian, J., "Electrolysis of LaAlO3 Single Crystals and Ceramics in a
Deuteriated Atmosphere", Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Cold Fusion,1998
(4) Yamamoto,H., A Catalytic Role of Atomic Oxygen on Anomalous Heat Generation Induced in Proton Conductive Ceramics under Hydrogen Atmosphere, JCF2 Abstract NO.25,2000.
(5) Iwamura, Y. et, al., "Detection of Anomalous Elements, X-ray and Excess Heat Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium through Multi-layer Cathode(Pd/CaO/Pd)", Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Cold Fusion, 1998.
As you can see, this hypothesized catalytic hydrino boosting process is complex, overunity, and pretty far out there on the fringes of accepted science...if it were not, the puzzle of water-as-fuel booster would have been solved long ago. And although this particular explanation is somewhat new - the numerous claims for auto engines running on water are far from new. In fact, though you may not realize it, these claims of water-as-fuel have been around for at least fifty years in the USA, but recently the claims seem to be on the rise internationally, so we may be on the cusp of a new paradigm in energy conversion.
I believe the independent "garage inventor," will be instrumental - and most likely, inventors in Europe or Asia where the relative cost of petroleum is much higher, will be most highly motivated. When combined with the *power of the internet* to disseminate speculation, un-publishable theories, and numerous test results, positive and negative, things could advance quicker than in any big bureaucracy ... not that Tony Blair runs a big bureaucracy or anything like that.... ;-)
Jones
