On Jul 24, 2007, at 10:38 AM, Michel Jullian wrote:
I haven't followed this thread for lack of understanding of most of
the concepts, is this a new explanation for CF you are proposing
Horace?
Yes, and a new approach to obtaining it, though it is based on a lot
of prior thinking.
A short summary for dummies would be most welcome, it might help
others too.
Here I've consolidated everything as best as I can quickly. I expect
it will evolve into an article for my website.
ELECTRON CATALYZED FUSION
Electron catalyzed fusion is a concept explored in:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/EcatFusion.pdf
and various posts to vortex in 2001 and prior. The following few
paragraphs, from the above article, are an initital approach to
understanding the concept, which is fairly simple.
Suppose you have three charges, two deutrium nucleii (+) and and
electron (-), all in a line in the x axis separated by (an initial)
distance of 10^-11 m:
d1 d2
(+) (-) (+)
v1-> v2->
What is the initial net force on each particle? The force between the
left deuterium nucleus and the electron and is given by
F1 = q^2/(4 Pi e0 r^2) = 8.98 N
and is to the right towards the electron. The force the two deuterium
nucleii is repulsive and is 1/4 the magnitude of the force between
the deuterium and the electron because the distance is doubled, i.e.
d1 + d2 = 2 d1. So the net force on the left deuteron is 3/4 * 8.98 N
= 6.74 N and is to the right. Similarly, the net force on the right
deuteron is 6.74 N and is to the left. The net force on the electron
balances out to zero... (More follows in the article.)
More discussions regarding electron catalysis of fusion are:
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/ElectPairs.pdf
http://mtaonline.net/~hheffner/DualElectronCatFusion.pdf
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/PairLNR.pdf
ELECTRON FUGACITY AND COLD FUSION
Much discussion has occurred in the cold fusion (LENR) literature
regarding the importance of achieving high D/Pd ratios, i.e. high D/
Pd loading ratios, in CF cathodes, and thus high hydrogen fugacity.
Fugacity is similar to pressure in that it is a measure of the energy
required to add an additional atom to the system. See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugacity
Much work in the field has focused on the difficulty of achieving
high fugacity because lattice imperfections exist, electrode metals
fail, diffusion occurs into cracks, etc.
Some work has focused on the importance of superimposed electrostatic
fields in or on cathodes, specifically that of S. Szpak, P. A. Mosier-
Boss, F. E. Gordon. For early work see:
http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/SzpakSprecursors.pdf
This work noted structural and morphological changes in electrode
structure, dendritic growth, etc., in the presence of strong
electrostatic fields. Based on this work I suggested a change in
cell geometry to maximize field potential at the surface of the
cathode, and active area of the cathode. See:
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/Szpak.pdf
Despite an intense focus on hydrogen fugacity, and some work related
to superimposed electrostatic fields, no work has focused on electron
fugacity. This is a complex area due to the quantum mechanical
requirement for degenerate electrons to occupy ever higher energetic
states when their density passes a critical value, and no conduction
electron is free to "move". See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter
One aspect of achieving high loading coefficients is that free
conduction band electrons, which are ionically bound to the adsorbed
hydrogen in the lattice, are bound to a specific location when the
adsorbed hydrogen reaches saturation and thus can no longer diffuse.
In fact, one means of measuring cathode loading is to measure cathode
conductivity. A key aspect of achieving high electron fugacity then,
when no other means is applied or even known to be of use, is to
achieve loading to the point no diffusion can occur. Cracked
electrodes, lattice imperfections, unsealed exposed surfaces, and
anything else that permits diffusion decreases electron fugacity.
Electron fugacity at the surface of a metal conductor can be
increased by raising the potential of the metal. This increase of
potential is synonymous with an increase in charge density. Free
electrons migrate to the surface of a metal conductor - to a point.
When saturation occurs, additional electrons are forced to occupy
locations within the volume of the conductor. At very high
potentials, orbitals of surface atoms deform out into the space
beyond the normal surface.
If sufficient fugacity is achieved the addition of more electrons
results in higher energy state of the electrons, not a higher
temperature of the electron "gas". It is at this point fusion may
possibly be catalysed. High electron energies, reduced deBroglie
wavelength, permits electron catalysis of fusion. The 3 body
tunneling reaction is energetically increased:
D+ + e- + D+ ---> He++ + e- + energy
D+ + e- + D+ ---> T+ + P + e- + energy
This involves the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an electron and
deuteron to the location of another deuteron. When the fugacity of
both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, addition of
more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is an energy
focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state, i.e. group
fugacity, results in a pressure outlet involving only a few members.
Note that the catalytic electron escape reduces the resultant nuclear
temperature. The branching ratios from an electron catalyzed
reaction will differ from those of a kinetic fusion reaction.
The surface electron fugacity of a cathode can be achieved by
increasing the electrostatic potential of the cathode, and thus the
electrostatic field at the cathode surface. It can also be increased
by a bumpy or dendritic surface.
An alternative way, or more importantly an additional way, to
increase the electric field strength at an electrode surface is to
bounce a laser beam off of it at a high angle of deflection. Laser
stimulation of a very high negative potential cathode surface may
work in a gas environment, provided the surface outgassing is
controlled by choice of a surface metal with a low hydrogen
permeability and which sustains both a high hydrogen and high
electron fugacity. Such a surface can be fed adsorbed hydrogen via a
Pd backing.
ELECTRON CATALYSIS AND WAVEFUNCTION COLLAPSE
If sufficient electron and deuteron fugacity is achieved the
probability of a 3 body tunneling reaction is energetically increased:
D+ + e- + D+ ---> He++ + e- + energy
D+ + e- + D+ ---> T+ + P + e- + energy
This involves the simultaneous 2 body tunneling of an electron and
deuteron to the location of another deuteron. When the fugacity of
both hydrogen and electrons reaches a critical point, addition of
more energy to the lattice results in fusions. This is an energy
focusing effect. An increase in the group energy state, i.e. group
fugacities, results in a pressure outlet involving wavefunction
collapse of only a few members. Let us examine how this might change
branching ratios.
The following are standard hot branching ratios:
D + D --> T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.03 MeV) (4.03 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 3He(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV) (3.27 MeV, 50%)
D + D --> 4He( 76 keV) + gamma (23.8 MeV) (23.9 MeV, 1x10^-6)
The initial effect of an electron in a newly fused combined nucleus
is to reduce its potential energy. The tunneling of two deuterons
and an electron to a point is the result of a wavefunction collapse.
The amount of energy lost in the wavefunction collapse is dependent
on the size of the combined intermediate result.
From the electric potential energy Pe for separating an electron
from two deuterons we have:
Pe = k (-2q)(q)(1/r) = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/r)
which we can rearrange to obtain r for a given potential energy,
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/Pe)
and we have for 23.9 MeV:
r = (2.88x10^-9 eV m) (1/(23.9x10^6 eV))
r = 1.2x10^-16 m
which is about 10 times the diameter of a quark, and thus in the
realm of credibility. It is feasible for the wavefunction collapse
to initially consume all the available fusion energy.
If the three interacting particles collapse to a point, or even to
quark size, then all the 23.9 MeV available from ordinary hot fusion
(and more) is consumed. This is certainly an energetically favorable
tunneling reaction! Further, given that the collapsed intermediate
nucleus radius is variable in size, according to some probability
distribution, the we can see that the neutron producing reaction,
having the least energy available from the reaction (3.27 MeV), would
necessarily be the least likely branch path. Thus we can see how
electron catalyzed fusion produces an initially cool nucleus, and
favors the reaction D + D --> He.
However, the nucleus can't stay cool. The confined electron gains
energy from the vacuum, and from its immediate neighbors. It gains
energy until it has sufficient energy to tunnel out, and take some
kinetic energy with it also. In the process of the electron gaining
energy, while it and the deuterons are confined in and experiencing
accelerations within the energetic nucleus, it can be expected to
radiate. This is the energy of cold fusion, of electron catalyzed
fusion - protracted low energy gammas and beta radiation. The most
likely product is He, and the second most likely product, though
comparatively rare, is T. The least likely products are He3 and
neutrons.
Horace Heffner
http://www.mtaonline.net/~hheffner/
