Excellent post. Are you hip to Gilovitch's book: How We Know What isn't So, The fallibility of human reason in everyday life? He studies human cognitive error at Cornell.
http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0029117062/sr=8-1/qid=1149893839/ref=pd_bbs_1/102-4458199-6191348?%5Fencoding=UTF8 --- In FairfieldLife@yahoogroups.com, new_morning_blank_slate <[EMAIL PROTECTED]> wrote: > > We all make them. To the extent that we are aware of their existence > and structure, we can avoid them in our own internal reasoning, and in > communications. > > Whoever has more than 20 in any post, gets a gallon of woowoo juice. > > > http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases > > Cognitive bias is distortion in the way we perceive reality (see also > cognitive distortion). > > Some of these have been verified empirically in the field of > psychology, others are considered general categories of bias. > > This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy > certain standards for completeness. > > > > Decision making and behavioral biases > > Many of these biases are studied for how they affect belief formation > and business decisions and scientific research > > * Bandwagon effect - the tendency to do (or believe) things > because many other people do (or believe) the same. > * Bias blind spot - the tendency not to compensate for one's own > cognitive biases. > * Choice-supportive bias - the tendency to remember one's choices > as better than they actually were. > * Confirmation bias - the tendency to search for or interpret > information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. > * Congruence bias - the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively > through direct testing > * Contrast effect - the enhancement or diminishment of a weight or > other measurement when compared with recently observed contrasting object. > * Disconfirmation bias - the tendency for people to extend > critical scrutiny to information which contradicts their prior beliefs > and accept uncritically information that is congruent with their prior > beliefs. > * Endowment effect - the tendency for people to value something > more as soon as they own it. > * Focusing effect - prediction bias occurring when people place > too much importance on one aspect of an event; causes error in > accurately predicting the utility of a future outcome. > * Hyperbolic discounting - the tendency for people to have a > stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later > payoffs, the closer to the present both payoffs are. > * Illusion of control - the tendency for human beings to believe > they can control or at least influence outcomes which they clearly cannot. > * Impact bias - the tendency for people to overestimate the length > or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states. > * Information bias - the tendency to seek information even when it > cannot affect action > * Loss aversion - the tendency for people to strongly prefer > avoiding losses over acquiring gains (see also sunk cost effects) > * Neglect of Probability - the tendency to completely disregard > probability when making a decision under uncertainty. > * Mere exposure effect - the tendency for people to express undue > liking for things merely because they are familiar with them. > * Color psychology - the tendency for cultural symbolism of > certain colors to affect affective reasoning. > * Omission Bias - The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, > or less moral than equally harmful omissions (inactions.) > * Outcome Bias - the tendency to judge a decision by its eventual > outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it > was made. > * Planning fallacy - the tendency to underestimate task-completion > times. > * Post-purchase rationalization - the tendency to persuade oneself > through rational argument that a purchase was good value. > * Pseudocertainty effect - the tendency to make risk-averse > choices if the expected outcome is positive, but risk-seeking choices > to avoid negative outcomes. > * Rosy retrospection - the tendency to rate past events more > positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred. > * Selective perception - the tendency for expectations to affect > perception. > * Status quo bias - the tendency for people to like things to stay > relatively the same. > * Von Restorff effect - the tendency for an item that "stands out > like a sore thumb" to be more likely to be remembered than other items. > * Zeigarnik effect - the tendency for people to remember > uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. > * Zero-risk bias - preference for reducing a small risk to zero > over a greater reduction in a larger risk. > > > Biases in probability and belief > > Many of these biases are often studied for how they affect business > and economic decisions and how they affect experimental research. > > * Affective forecasting > Affective forecasting is the forecasting of one's affect (emotional > state) in the future. This kind of prediction is affected by various > kinds of cognitive biases, i.e. systematic errors of thought. Daniel > Gilbert of the department of social psychology at Harvard University > and other researchers in the field, such as Timothy Wilson of the > University of Virginia and George Loewenstein of Carnegie Mellon > University, have studied those cognitive biases and given them names > like "empathy gap" and "impact bias" and the like. > > Affective forecasting is an important concept in psychology, because > psychologists try to study what situations in life are important to > humans, and how they change their views with time. > > > * Ambiguity effect - the avoidance of options for which missing > information makes the probability seem "unknown" > > The ambiguity effect is a cognitive bias where decision-making is > affected due to a lack of information, or an "ambiguity." > > For example, picture an urn with 90 balls inside of it. The balls are > colored red, black and yellow. 30 of the balls are red, and the other > 60 are some combination of black and yellow balls, with all > combinations being equally likely. In option X, drawing a red ball > would earn you the $100, and in option Y, drawing a black ball would > earn you the $100. The difference between the two options is that the > number of red balls is certain for option X, but the number of black > balls for option Y is uncertain. > > Which option gives you the best chance at picking out a winning ball? > The truth is that the probability of picking a winning ball is > identical for both options X and Y. In option X, where the number of > red balls is certain, the probability of selecting a winning ball is > 1/3 (30 red balls out of 90 total balls). In option Y, despite the > fact that the number of black balls is not certain, the probability of > selecting a winning ball is also 1/3. This is because the range of > possibilities as to the number of black balls is some amount between 0 > and 60. This means that the probability of there being more than 30 > black balls is the same as there being less than 30 black balls. > Because of this, according to what is known as the expected-utility > theory, one should be indifferent between the two options. As a > result, the chances of winning the $100 are the same for both urns. > > People are much more likely to want to select a ball under option X, > where the probability of selecting a winning ball is, in their minds, > more certain. The question as to the number of black balls under > scenario Y turns people off to that option. Despite the fact that > there could possibly be double the black balls to red balls, people > tend to not want to take the opposing risk that there may be less than > 30 black balls. The "ambiguity" behind option Y makes people want to > select option X, even when they are theoretically equivalent. > > This bias was discovered by Daniel Ellsberg in 1961. Ellsberg deemed > these situations where the "probability is unknown" as "ambiguous," > hence the "ambiguity effect." > > One explanation of the effect is that people follow a heuristic, a > rule of thumb, of avoiding options about what information is missing > (Frisch & Baron, 1988; Ritov & Baron, 1990). This is usually a good > rule because it leads us to look for the information. In many cases, > though, the information cannot be obtained. Information is almost > always missing, and the effect is often the result of calling some > particular missing piece to our attention. > > * Anchoring - the tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on > one trait or piece of information when making decisions > > * Anthropic bias - the tendency for one's evidence to be biased by > observation selection effects > * Attentional bias - neglect of relevant data when making > judgments of a correlation or association > * Availability error - the distortion of one's perceptions of > reality, due to the tendency to remember one alternative outcome of a > situation much more easily than another > * Belief bias - the tendency to base assessments on personal > beliefs (see also belief perseverance and Experimenter's regress) > * Belief Overkill - the tendency to bring beliefs and values > together so that they all point to the same conclusion > * Clustering illusion - the tendency to see patterns where > actually none exist > * Conjunction fallacy - the tendency to assume that specific > conditions are more probable than general ones > * Gambler's fallacy - the tendency to assume that individual > random events are influenced by previous random events "the coin has > a memory" > * Hindsight bias - sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" > effect, the inclination to see past events as being predictable > * Illusory correlation - beliefs that inaccurately suppose a > relationship between a certain type of action and an effect > * Myside bias - the tendency for people to fail to look for or to > ignore evidence against what they already favor > * Neglect of prior base rates effect - the tendency to fail to > incorporate prior known probabilities which are pertinent to the > decision at hand > * Observer-expectancy effect - when a researcher expects a given > result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or > misinterprets data in order to find it. (see also subject-expectancy > effect) > * Overconfidence effect - the tendency to overestimate one's own > abilities > * Polarization effect - increase in strength of belief on both > sides of an issue after presentation of neutral or mixed evidence, > resulting from biased assimilation of the evidence. > * Positive outcome bias (prediction) - a tendency in prediction to > overestimate the probability of good things happening to them. (see > also wishful thinking and valence effect) > * Recency effect - the tendency to weigh recent events more than > earlier events (see also peak-end rule) > * Primacy effect - the tendency to weigh initial events more than > subsequent events > * Subadditivity effect - the tendency to judge probability of the > whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts. > > > > Social biases > > Most of these biases are labeled as attributional biases. > > * Barnum effect (or Forer Effect) - the tendency to give high > accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly > are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general > enough to apply to a wide range of people. > * Egocentric bias - occurs when people claim more responsibility > for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside > observer would. > * False consensus effect - the tendency for people to overestimate > the degree to which others agree with them. > * Fundamental attribution error - the tendency for people to > over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed > in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational > influences on the same behavior. (see also group attribution error, > positivity effect, and negativity effect) > * Halo effect - the tendency for a person's positive or negative > traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another > in others' perceptions of them. (see also physical attractiveness > stereotype) > * Illusion of asymmetic insight - people perceive their knowledge > of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them. > * Ingroup bias - preferential treatment people give to whom they > perceive to be members of their own groups. > * Just-world phenomenon - the tendency for people to believe the > world is "just" and so therefore people "get what they deserve." > * Lake Wobegon effect - the human tendency to report flattering > beliefs about oneself and believe that one is above average (see also > worse-than-average effect, and overconfidence effect). > * Notational bias - a form of cultural bias in which a notation > induces the appearance of a nonexistent natural law. > * Outgroup homogeneity bias - individuals see members of their own > group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups. > * Projection bias - the tendency to unconsciously assume that > others share the same or similar thoughts, beliefs, values, or positions. > * Self-serving bias - the tendency to claim more responsibility > for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency > for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to > their interests. (see also group-serving bias) > * Trait ascription bias - the tendency for people to view > themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior > and mood while viewing others as much more predictable. > * Self-fulfilling prophecy - the tendency to engage in behaviors > that elicit results which will (consciously or subconsciously) confirm > our beliefs. > > ========== > > Other Cognitive Biases > > http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cognitive_biases > (Some duplicates with above) > > * Adaptive Bias > Adaptive Bias is the idea that the human brain has evolved to reason > adaptively, rather than truthfully or even rationally, and that > Cognitive bias may have evolved as a mechanism to reduce the overall > cost of cognitive errors as opposed to merely reducing the number of > cognitive errors, when faced with making a decision under conditions > of uncertainty. > > When making decisions under conditions of uncertainty, two kinds of > errors need to be taken into account - "false positives", i.e. > deciding that a risk or benefit exists when it does not, and "false > negatives", i.e. failing to notice a risk or benefit that exists. > False positives are also commonly called "Type 1 errors", and false > negatives are called "Type 2 errors". > > Where the cost or impact of a type 1 error is much greater than the > cost of a type 2 error (e.g. the water is safe to drink), it can be > worthwhile to bias the decision making system towards making fewer > type 1 errors, i.e. making it less likely to conclude that a > particular situation exists. This by definition would also increase > the number of type 2 errors. Conversely, where a false positive is > much less costly than a false negative (blood tests, smoke detectors), > it makes sense to bias the system towards maximising the probablility > that a particular (very costly) situation will be recognised, even if > this often leads to the (relatively un-costly) event of noticing > something that is not actually there. > > Martie G. Haselton and David M. Buss (2003) state that Cognitive Bias > can be expected to have developed in humans for cognitive tasks where: > > * Decision making is complicated by a significant signal-detection > problem (i.e. when there is uncertainty) > * The solution to the particular kind of decision making problem > has had a recurrent effect on survival and fitness throughout > evolutionary history > * The costs of a "false positive" or "false negative" error > dramatically outweighs the cost of the alternative type of error > > > * Affective forecasting > Affective forecasting is the forecasting of one's affect (emotional > state) in the future. This kind of prediction is affected by various > kinds of cognitive biases, i.e. systematic errors of thought. Daniel > Gilbert of the department of social psychology at Harvard University > and other researchers in the field, such as Timothy Wilson of the > University of Virginia and George Loewenstein of Carnegie Mellon > University, have studied those cognitive biases and given them names > like "empathy gap" and "impact bias" and the like. > > Affective forecasting is an important concept in psychology, because > psychologists try to study what situations in life are important to > humans, and how they change their views with time. > > * Anchor (NLP) > * Anthropic bias > * Apophenia > * Appeal to pity > * Attributional bias > * Availability error > * Availability heuristic > > B > > * Base rate fallacy > * Belief Overkill > * Bias blind spot > > C > > * Choice blindness > * Choice-supportive bias > * Clustering illusion > * Confirmation bias > * Conjunction fallacy > * Contrast effect > * Cultural bias > > D > > * Data dredging > * Disconfirmation bias > > E > > * Egocentric bias > * Empathy gap > * Endowment effect > * Errors in Syllogisms > > > E cont. > > * Exposure effect > > F > > * False consensus effect > * Forer effect > * Fundamental attribution error > > G > > * Gambler's fallacy > * Group attribution error > * Group-serving bias > * Groupthink > > H > > * Halo effect > * Hindsight bias > * Hostile media effect > * Hyperbolic discounting > > I > > * Illusion of control > * Impact bias > * Ingroup bias > > J > > * Just-world phenomenon > > K > > * Kuleshov Effect > > L > > * Lake Wobegon effect > * Loss aversion > > M > > * Memory bias > * Mindset > * Misinformation effect > > N > > * Negativity effect > * Neglect of Probability > * Notational bias > > O > > * Observer-expectancy effect > * Omission Bias > * Outgroup homogeneity bias > * Overconfidence effect > > P > > * Pareidolia > > > P cont. > > * Peak-end rule > * Physical attractiveness stereotype > * Picture superiority effect > * Planning fallacy > * Pollyanna principle > * Positivity effect > * Primacy effect > * Publication bias > > R > > * Recall bias > * Recency effect > * Regression fallacy > * Response bias > * Rosy retrospection > > S > > * Selective perception > * Self-deception > * Self-serving bias > * Serial position effect > * Spacing effect > * Status quo bias > * Subject-expectancy effect > * Sunk cost > * Superstition > * Suspension of judgment > > T > > * Trait ascription bias > > V > > * Valence effect > * Von Restorff effect > > W > > * Wishful thinking > * Worse-than-average effect > > Z > > * Zeigarnik effect > * Zero-risk bias > > > Memory biases may either enhance or impair the recall of memory, or > they may alter the content of what we report remembering. > > List of memory biases > > * Choice-supportive bias - states that chosen options are > remembered as better than rejected options (Mather, Shafir & Johnson, > 2000). > * Classroom effect - states that some portion of student > performance is explained by the classroom environment and teacher as > opposed to purely individual factors. > * Context effect - states that cognition and memory are dependent > on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to > retrieve than in-context memories (i.e, recall time and accuracy for a > work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa). > * Hindsight bias - sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" > effect, is the inclination to see past events as being predictable. > * Humor effect - states that humorous items are more easily > remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the > distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to > understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor. > * Infantile amnesia - states that few memories are retained from > before age 2. > * Generation effect - states that self-generated information is > remembered best. > * Lag effect > * Levels-of-processing effect - states that different methods of > encoding information into memory have different levels of > effectiveness (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). > * List-length effect > * Mere exposure effect - states that familiarity increases liking. > * Misinformation effect - states that misinformation affects > people's reports of their own memory. > * Modality effect - states that memory recall is higher for the > last items of a list when the list items were received auditorily > versus visually. > * Mood congruent memory bias - states that information congruent > with one's current mood is remembered best. > * Next-in-line effect > * Part-list cueing effect - states that being shown some items > from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items. > * Picture superiority effect - states that concepts are much more > likely to be remembered experimentally if they are presented as > pictures rather than as words. > * Positivity effect - states that older adults favor positive over > negative information in their memories. > * Processing difficulty effect - see Levels-of-processing effect. > * Primacy effect - states that the first items on a list show an > advantage in memory. > * Recency effect - states that the last items on a list show an > advantage in memory. > * Rosy retrospection - states that the past is remembered as > better than it really was. > * Serial position effect - states that items at the beginning of a > list are the easiest to recall, followed by the items near the end of > a list; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered. > * Self-generation effect - states that people are better able to > recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar > statements generated by others. > * Self-relevance effect - states that memories considered > self-relevent are better recalled that other, similar information > * Spacing effect - states that while you are more likely to > remember material if exposed to it many times, you will be much more > likely to remember it if the exposures are repeated over a longer span > of time. > * Suffix effect - states that there is considerable impairment of > the Recency effect, if a redundant suffix item is added to a list, > which the subject is not required to recall (Morton, Crowder & > Prussin, 1972). > * Testing effect - states that frequent testing of material that > has been committed to memory improves memory recall more than simply > study of the material without testing. > * Time-of-day effect > * Verbatim effect - states that the "gist" of what someone has > said is better remembered than the verbatim wording (Poppenk, Walia, > Joanisse, Danckert, & Köhler, 2006) > * Von Restorff effect - states that an item that "stands out like > a sore thumb" is more likely to be remembered than other items (von > Restorff, 1933). > * Zeigarnik effect - states that people remember uncompleted or > interrupted tasks better than completed ones. > > > Recall bias > From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia > Jump to: navigation, search > > Taken generally, recall bias is a type of statistical bias which > occurs when the way a survey respondent answers a question is affected > not just by the correct answer, but also by the respondent's memory. > [1] [2] This can affect the results of the survey. As a hypothetical > example, suppose that a survey in 2005 asked respondents whether they > believed that O. J. Simpson had killed his wife. Respondents who > believed him innocent might be more likely to have forgotten about the > case, and therefore to state no opinion, than respondents who thought > him guilty. If this is the case, then the survey would find a > higher-than-accurate proportion of people who believed that O.J. did > kill his wife. > > Relatedly but distinctly, the term might also be used to describe an > instance where a survey respondent intentionally responds incorrectly > to a question about their personal history which results in response > bias. As a hypothetical example, suppose that a researcher conducts a > survey among women of group A, asking whether they have had an > abortion, and the same survey among women of group B. > > If the results are different between the two groups, it might be that > women of one group are less likely to have had an abortion, or it > might simply be that women of one group who have had abortions are > less likely to admit to it. If the latter is the case, then this would > skew the survey results; this is a kind of response bias. (It is also > possible that both are the case: women of one group are less likely to > have had abortions, and women of one group who have had abortions are > less likely to admit to it. This would still affect the survey > statistics.) > > ==== > > > Logical Fallacies > > Aristotelian fallacies > [edit] > > Material fallacies > > The classification of material fallacies widely adopted by modern > logicians and based on that of Aristotle, Organon (Sophistici > elenchi), is as follows: > > * Fallacy of Accident (also called destroying the exception or a > dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid) meaning to argue > erroneously from a general rule to a particular case, without proper > regard to particular conditions that vitiate the application of the > general rule; e.g. if manhood suffrage be the law, arguing that a > criminal or a lunatic must, therefore, have a vote. > > * Converse Fallacy of Accident (also called reverse accident, > destroying the exception, or a dicto secundum quid ad dictum > simpliciter) meaning to argue from a special case to a general rule. > > * Irrelevant Conclusion (also called Ignoratio Elenchi), wherein, > instead of proving the fact in dispute, the arguer seeks to gain his > point by diverting attention to some extraneous fact (as in the legal > story of "No case. Abuse the plaintiff's attorney"). The fallacies are > common in platform oratory, in which the speaker obscures the real > issue by appealing to his audience on the grounds of > o purely personal considerations (argumentum ad hominem) > o popular sentiment (argumentum ad populum, appeal to the > majority) > o fear (argumentum ad baculum) > o conventional propriety (argumentum ad verecundiam) > > This fallacy has been illustrated by ethical or theological > arguments wherein the fear of punishment is subtly substituted for > abstract right as the sanction of moral obligation. > > * Begging the question (also called Petitio Principii or Circulus > in Probando--arguing in a circle) consists in demonstrating a > conclusion by means of premises that pre-suppose that conclusion. > Jeremy Bentham points out that this fallacy may lurk in a single word, > especially in an epithet, e.g. if a measure were condemned simply on > the ground that it is alleged to be "un-English". > > * Fallacy of the Consequent, really a species of Irrelevant > Conclusion, wherein a conclusion is drawn from premises that do not > really support it. > > * Fallacy of False Cause, or Non Sequitur (L., it does not > follow), wherein one thing is incorrectly assumed as the cause of > another, as when the ancients attributed a public calamity to a > meteorological phenomenon (a special case of this fallacy also goes by > the Latin term post hoc ergo propter hoc; the fallacy of believing > that temporal succession implies a causal relation). > > * Fallacy of Many Questions (Plurium Interrogationum), wherein > several questions are improperly grouped in the form of one, and a > direct categorical answer is demanded, e.g. if a prosecuting counsel > asked the prisoner " What time was it when you met this man? " with > the intention of eliciting the tacit admission that such a meeting had > taken place. Another example is the classic line, "Is it true that you > no longer beat your wife?" > > [edit] > > Verbal fallacies > > Verbal fallacies are those in which a false conclusion is obtained by > improper or ambiguous use of words. They are generally classified as > follows. > > * Equivocation consists in employing the same word in two or more > senses, e.g. in a syllogism, the middle term being used in one sense > in the major and another in the minor premise, so that in fact there > are four not three terms ("All fair things are honourable; This woman > is fair; therefore this woman is honourable," the second "fair" being > in reference to complexion). > * Amphibology is the result of ambiguity of grammatical structure, > e.g. of the position of the adverb "only" in careless writers ("He > only said that," in which sentence, as experience shows, the adverb > has been intended to qualify any one of the other three words). > * Fallacy of Composition is a species of Amphibology that results > from the confused use of collective terms. e.g. "The angles of a > triangle are less than two right angles" might refer to the angles > separately or added together. > * Division, the converse of the preceding, which consists in > employing the middle term distributively in the minor and collectively > in the major premise. > * Accent, which occurs only in speaking and consists of > emphasizing the wrong word in a sentence. e.g., "He is a fairly good > pianist," according to the emphasis on the words, may imply praise of > a beginner's progress, or an expert's depreciation of a popular hero, > or it may imply that the person in question is a deplorable violinist. > * Figure of Speech, the confusion between the metaphorical and > ordinary uses of a word or phrase. > > Logical Fallacies > > http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy > > The standard Aristotelian logical fallacies are: > > * Fallacy of Four Terms (Quaternio terminorum) > * Fallacy of Undistributed Middle > * Fallacy of Illicit process of the major or the Illicit minor term; > * Fallacy of Negative Premises. > > [edit] > > Other systems of classification > > Of other classifications of fallacies in general the most famous are > those of Francis Bacon and J. S. Mill. Bacon (Novum Organum, Aph. 33, > 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four Idola (Idols, i.e. False > Appearances), which summarize the various kinds of mistakes to which > the human intellect is prone. With these should be compared the > Offendicula of Roger Bacon, contained in the Opus maius, pt. i. J. S. > Mill discussed the subject in book v. of his Logic, and Jeremy > Bentham's Book of Fallacies (1824) contains valuable remarks. See Rd. > Whateley's Logic, bk. v.; A. de Morgan, Formal Logic (1847) ; A. > Sidgwick, Fallacies (1883) and other textbooks. > [edit] > > Fallacies in the media and politics > > Fallacies are used frequently by pundits in the media and politics. > When one politician says to another, "You don't have the moral > authority to say X", this could be an example of the argumentum ad > hominem or personal attack fallacy; that is, attempting to disprove X, > not by addressing validity of X but by attacking the person who > asserted X. Arguably, the politician is not even attempting to make an > argument against X, but is instead offering a moral rebuke against the > interlocutor. For instance, if X is the assertion: > > The military uniform is a symbol of national strength and honor. > > Then ostensibly, the politician is not trying to prove the contrary > assertion. If this is the case, then there is no logically fallacious > argument, but merely a personal opinion about moral worth. Thus > identifying logical fallacies may be difficult and dependent upon context. > > In the opposite direction is the fallacy of argument from authority. A > classic example is the ipse dixit"He himself said it" argumentused > throughout the Middle Ages in reference to Aristotle. A modern > instance is "celebrity spokespersons" in advertisements: a product is > good and you should buy/use/support it because your favorite celebrity > endorses it. > > An appeal to authority is always a logical fallacy, though it can be > an appropriate form of rational argument if, for example, it is an > appeal to expert testimony. In this case, the expert witness must be > recognized as such and all parties must agree that the testimony is > appropriate to the circumstances. This form of argument is common in > legal situations. > > By definition, arguments with logical fallacies are invalid, but they > can often be (re)written in such a way that they fit a valid argument > form. The challenge to the interlocutor is, of course, to discover the > false premise, i.e. the premise that makes the argument unsound. > [edit] > > General list of fallacies > > The entries in the following list are neither exhaustive nor mutually > exclusive; that is, several distinct entries may refer to the same > pattern. As noted in the introduction, these fallacies describe > erroneous or at least suspect patterns of argument in general, not > necessarily argument based on formal logic. Many of the fallacies > listed are traditionally recognized and discussed in works on critical > thinking; others are more specialized. > > * Ad hominem (also called argumentum ad hominem or personal > attack) including: > o ad hominem abusive (also called argumentum ad personam) > o ad hominem circumstantial (also called ad hominem > circumstantiae) > o ad hominem tu quoque (also called you-too argument) > * Amphibology (also called amphiboly) > * Appeal to authority (also called argumentum ad verecundiam or > argument by authority) > * Appeal to emotion including: > o Appeal to consequences (also called argumentum ad > consequentiam) > o Appeal to fear (also called argumentum ad metum or > argumentum in terrorem) > o Appeal to flattery > o Appeal to pity (also called argumentum ad misericordiam) > o Appeal to ridicule > o Appeal to spite (also called argumentum ad odium) > o Two wrongs make a right > o Wishful thinking > * Appeal to the majority (also called Appeal to belief, Argumentum > ad numerum, Appeal to popularity, Appeal to the people, Bandwagon > fallacy, Argumentum ad populum, Authority of the many, Consensus > gentium, Argument by consensus) > * Appeal to motive > * Appeal to novelty (also called argumentum ad novitatem) > * Appeal to probability > * Appeal to tradition (also called argumentum ad antiquitatem or > appeal to common practice) > * Argument from fallacy (also called argumentum ad logicam) > * Argument from ignorance (also called argumentum ad ignorantiam > or argument by lack of imagination) > * Argument from silence (also called argumentum ex silentio) > * Appeal to force (also called argumentum ad baculum) > * Appeal to wealth (also called argumentum ad crumenam) > * Appeal to poverty (also called argumentum ad lazarum) > * Argument from repetition (also called argumentum ad nauseam) > * Base rate fallacy > * Begging the question (also called petitio principii, circular > argument or circular reasoning) > * Conjunction fallacy > * Continuum fallacy (also called fallacy of the beard) > * Correlative based fallacies including: > o Fallacy of many questions (also called complex question, > fallacy of presupposition, loaded question or plurium interrogationum) > o False dilemma (also called false dichotomy or bifurcation) > o Denying the correlative > o Suppressed correlative > * Definist fallacy > * Dicto simpliciter, including: > o Accident (also called a dicto simpliciter ad dictum > secundum quid) > o Converse accident (also called a dicto secundum quid ad > dictum simpliciter) > * Equivocation > * Engineering Fallacy > * Fallacies of distribution: > o Composition > o Division > o Ecological fallacy > * Fallacies of Presumption > * False analogy > * False premise > * False compromise > * Faulty generalization including: > o Biased sample > o Hasty generalization (also called fallacy of insufficient > statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely > fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid) > o Overwhelming exception > o Statistical special pleading > * Gambler's fallacy/Inverse gambler's fallacy > * Genetic fallacy > * Guilt by association > * Historian's fallacy > * Homunculus fallacy > * If-by-whiskey (argues both sides) > * Ignoratio elenchi (also called irrelevant conclusion) > * Inappropriate interpretations or applications of statistics > including: > o Biased sample > o Correlation implies causation > o Gambler's fallacy > o Prosecutor's fallacy > o Screening test fallacy > * Incomplete comparison > * Inconsistent comparison > * Invalid proof > * Judgemental language > * Juxtaposition > * Lump of labour fallacy (also called the fallacy of labour scarcity) > * Meaningless statement > * Middle ground (also called argumentum ad temperantiam) > * Misleading vividness > * Naturalistic fallacy > * Negative proof > * Non sequitur including: > o Affirming the consequent > o Denying the antecedent > * No true Scotsman > * Package deal fallacy > * Perfect solution fallacy > * Poisoning the well > * Progressive fallacy ("New is improved") > * Proof by assertion > * Questionable cause (also called non causa pro causa) including: > o Correlation implies causation (also called cum hoc ergo > propter hoc) > o Fallacy of the single cause > o Joint effect > o Post hoc (also called post hoc ergo propter hoc) > o Regression fallacy > o Texas sharpshooter fallacy > o Wrong direction > * Red herring (also called irrelevant conclusion) > * Reification (also called hypostatization) > * Relativist fallacy (also called subjectivist fallacy) > * Retrospective determinism (it happened so it was bound to) > * Shifting the burden of proof > * Slippery slope > * Special pleading > * Straw man > * Style over substance fallacy > * Sunk cost fallacy > * Syllogistic fallacies, including: > o Affirming a disjunct > o Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise > o Existential fallacy > o Fallacy of exclusive premises > o Fallacy of four terms (also called quaternio terminorum) > o Fallacy of the undistributed middle > o Illicit major > o Illicit minor > > [edit] > > General examples > > Fallacious arguments involve not only formal logic but also causality. > Others involve psychological ploys such as use of power relationships > between proposer and interlocutor, appeals to patriotism and morality, > appeals to ego etc., to establish necessary intermediate (explicit or > implicit) premises for an argument. Indeed, fallacies very often lay > in unstated assumptions or implied premises in arguments that are not > always obvious at first glance. One way to obscure a premise is > through enthymeme. > > We now give a few examples illustrating common errors in reasoning. > Note that providing a critique of an argument has no relation to the > truth of the conclusion. The conclusion could very well be true, while > the argument itself is not valid. See argument from fallacy. > > In the following, we view an argument as a dialogue between a proposer > and an interlocutor. > [edit] > > Example 1: Material Fallacy > > James argues: > > 1. Cheese is food. > 2. Food is delicious. > 3. Therefore, cheese is delicious. > > This argument claims to prove that cheese is delicious. This > particular argument has the form of a categorical syllogism. Any > argument must have premises as well as a conclusion. In this case we > need to ask what the premises are, that is the set of assumptions the > proposer of the argument can expect the interlocutor to grant. The > first assumption is almost true by definition: cheese is a foodstuff > edible by humans. The second assumption is less clear as to its > meaning. Since the assertion has no quantifiers of any kind, it could > mean any one of the following: > > * All food is delicious. > * Most food is delicious. > * All food is delicious, except for spoiled or moldy food. > * Some food is disgusting. > > In any of the last three interpretations, the above syllogism would > then fail to have validated its second premise. James may try to > assume that his interlocutor believes that all food is delicious; if > the interlocutor grants this then the argument is valid. In this case, > the interlocutor is essentially conceding the point to James. However, > the interlocutor is more likely to believe that some food is > disgusting, such as a sheep's liver white chocolate torte; and in this > case James is not much better off than he was before he formulated the > argument, since he now has to prove the assertion that cheese is a > unique type of universally delicious food, which is a disguised form > of the original thesis. From the point of view of the interlocutor, > James commits the logical fallacy of begging the question. > [edit] > > Example 2: Verbal Fallacy > > Barbara argues: > > 1. Andre is a good tennis player. > 2. Therefore, Andre is 'good', that is to say a morally good person. > > Here the problem is that the word good has different meanings, which > is to say that it is an ambiguous word. In the premise, Barbara says > that Andre is good at some particular activity, in this case tennis. > In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a morally good person. These > are clearly two different senses of the word "good". The premise might > be true but the conclusion can still be false: Andre might be the best > tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally. However, it is > not legitimate to infer he is a bad person on the ground there has > been a fallacious argument on the part of Barbara. Nothing concerning > Andre's moral qualities is to be inferred from the premise. > Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is > called the fallacy of equivocation, that is, equating two incompatible > terms or claims. > [edit] > > Example 3: Verbal Fallacy > > Ramesh argues: > > 1. Nothing is better than eternal happiness. > 2. Eating a hamburger is better than nothing. > 3. Therefore, eating a hamburger is better than eternal happiness. > > This argument has the appearance of an inference that applies > transitivity of the two-placed relation is better than, which in this > critique we grant is a valid property. The argument is an example of > syntactic ambiguity. In fact, the first premise semantically does not > predicate an attribute of the subject, as would for instance the assertion > > A potato is better than eternal happiness. > > In fact it is semantically equivalent to the following universal > quantification: > > Everything fails to be better than eternal happiness. > > So instantiating this fact with eating a hamburger, it logically > follows that > > Eating a hamburger fails to be better than eternal happiness. > > Note that the premise A hamburger is better than nothing does not > provide anything to this argument. This fact really means something > such as > > Eating a hamburger is better than eating nothing at all. > > Thus this is a fallacy of composition. > [edit] > > Example 4: Logical Fallacy > > In the strictest sense, a logical fallacy is the incorrect application > of a valid logical principle or an application of a nonexistent principle: > > 1. Some drivers are men. > 2. Some drivers are women. > 3. Therefore, some drivers are both men and women. > > This is fallacious. Indeed, there is no logical principle that states > > 1. For some x, P(x). > 2. For some x, Q(x). > 3. Therefore for some x, P(x) and Q(x). > > An easy way to show the above inference is invalid is by using Venn > diagrams. In logical parlance, the inference is invalid, since under > at least one interpretation of the predicates it is not validity > preserving. > ------------------------ Yahoo! Groups Sponsor --------------------~--> Everything you need is one click away. Make Yahoo! your home page now. http://us.click.yahoo.com/AHchtC/4FxNAA/yQLSAA/UlWolB/TM --------------------------------------------------------------------~-> To subscribe, send a message to: [EMAIL PROTECTED] Or go to: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FairfieldLife/ and click 'Join This Group!' Yahoo! 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