Wrong again. I did read it.
On 10/20/10, Jonathan Ashley <[email protected]> wrote: > Dumping an entire wikipedia.org page on us (when you obviously have not > read it) is not helping your case. From your page dump: > > Today the term republic still most commonly means a system > ofgovernment which derives its power from the people rather than > from another basis, such as heredity or divine right. This remains > theprimary definition of republic in most contexts. > > > On 10/20/2010 11:27 AM, Tommy News wrote: >> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic >> >> Republic >> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia >> Jump to: navigation, search >> For the political ideology, see Republicanism. For other uses, see >> Republic (disambiguation). >> >> This article is part of the >> Politics series >> Forms of government >> >> List of government types >> Anarchy >> Aristocracy >> Communist state >> Confederation >> Corporatism >> Corporatocracy >> Consociationalism >> Demarchy >> Democracy >> Direct >> Representative >> Consensus >> Despotism >> Dictatorship >> Autocracy >> Military/Military junta >> Right-wing >> Authoritarianism >> Totalitarianism >> Ethnic democracy >> Ethnocracy >> Exilarchy >> Fascism >> Federation >> Feudalism >> Gerontocracy >> Kleptocracy >> Kratocracy >> Kritocracy/Kritarchy >> Logocracy >> Magocracy >> Meritocracy >> Geniocracy >> Minarchism/Night Watchman >> Monarchy >> Absolute >> Constitutional/Limited >> Diarchy/Co-Kingship >> Elective >> Noocracy >> Ochlocracy/Mobocracy >> Oligarchy >> Panarchism >> Parliamentary >> Plutocracy >> Presidential >> Puppet state >> Republic >> Crowned >> Capitalist >> Constitutional >> Federal >> Parliamentary >> Dependent head of state >> Federal >> Socialist state >> Sociocracy >> Supranational union >> Technocracy >> Cyberocracy >> Netocracy >> Thalassocracy >> Theocracy >> Islamic state >> Theodemocracy >> Timocracy >> Tribal >> Chiefdom >> Tyranny >> Union >> >> Politics portal >> v • d • e >> A republic is a form of government in which the people or some portion >> thereof retain supreme control over the government,[1][2] and in which >> the head of government is not a monarch.[3][4] The word "republic" is >> derived from the Latin phrase res publica, which can be translated as >> "a public affair". >> >> Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology and >> composition. The most common definition of a republic is a state >> without a monarch.[3][4] In republics such as the United States and >> France, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by >> popular suffrage. In the United States, James Madison defined republic >> in terms of representative democracy as opposed to direct >> democracy,[5] and this usage is still employed by many viewing >> themselves as "democrats".[6] Montesquieu included both democracies, >> where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or >> oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms >> of government.[7] In modern political science, republicanism refers to >> a specific ideology that is based on civic virtue and is considered >> distinct from ideologies such as liberalism.[8] >> >> Most often a republic is a sovereign country, but there are also >> subnational entities that are referred to as republics, or which have >> governments that are described as "republican" in nature. For >> instance, Article IV of the Constitution of the United States >> "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of >> Government."[9] The Soviet Union was a single nation composed of >> distinct and nominally sovereign Soviet Socialist Republics. >> >> Niccolò Machiavelli described the governance and foundation of the >> ideal republic in his work Discourses on Livy. These writings, as well >> as those of his contemporaries such as Leonardo Bruni, are the >> foundation of the ideology political scientists call >> republicanism.[10][11] >> >> Contents [hide] >> 1 Origin of the term >> 2 History >> 2.1 Classical republics >> 2.2 Other ancient republics >> 2.3 Mercantile republics >> 2.4 Protestant republics >> 2.5 Liberal republics >> 2.6 Socialist republics >> 2.7 Communist republics >> 2.8 Decolonization >> 2.9 Islamic republics >> 3 Head of state >> 3.1 Structure >> 3.2 Election >> 3.3 Ambiguities >> 4 Types >> 4.1 Sub-national republics >> 5 Other meanings >> 5.1 Political philosophy >> 5.2 United States >> 6 See also >> 7 Notes and references >> 8 Further reading >> >> >> [edit] Origin of the term >> The idea of a republic first appeared in the writings of Italian >> scholars of the Renaissance, most importantly Machiavelli.[10][12] >> Machiavelli divided governments into two types, principalities ruled >> by a monarch and republics ruled by the people.[13][14] >> >> In medieval Northern Italy a number of city states had commune or >> signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers, such as >> Giovanni Villani, began thinking about the nature of these states and >> the differences from the more common monarchies. These early writers >> used terms such as libertas populi to describe the states. The >> terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the >> writings of Ancient Greece and Rome caused writers to prefer using >> classical terminology. To describe non-monarchial states writers, most >> importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin word res publica.[15] >> >> While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the >> non-monarchial states of Northern Italy, res publica has a set of >> interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite >> literally be translated as "public matter".[16] It was most often used >> by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the >> period of the Roman Empire.[17] The English word commonwealth derives >> from a direct translation of res publica, and its use in English is >> closer to how the Romans used the term res publica.[11] >> >> Today the term republic still most commonly means a system of >> government which derives its power from the people rather than from >> another basis, such as heredity or divine right. This remains the >> primary definition of republic in most contexts. >> >> This bipartite division of government types differs from the classical >> sources, and also the earlier of Machiavelli's own works, which >> divided governments into three types: monarchy, aristocracy, and >> democracy. As Machiavelli wrote, the distinction between an >> aristocracy ruled by a select elite and a democracy ruled by a council >> appointed by the people became cumbersome. By the time Machiavelli >> began work on The Prince, he had decided to refer to both aristocracy >> and democracies as republics.[18] >> >> A further set of meanings for the term comes from the Greek word >> politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as >> res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as >> republic. This is not a very accurate translation and the term >> politeia is today usually translated as form of government or regime. >> One continued use of this archaic translation is the title of Plato's >> major work on political science. In Greek it was titled Politeia and >> in English is thus known as The Republic. This naming is preserved for >> historic reasons, but is not considered accurate. Within the text of >> modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of >> politeia are used.[19] >> >> In English the word first came to prominence during The Protectorate >> era of Oliver Cromwell.[20] While commonwealth was the most common >> term to call the new monarchless state, republic was also in common >> use.[20] >> >> [edit] History >> Until modern times, the form of government for almost all states was >> monarchy.[21][22] During the classical period the Mediterranean region >> was home to several states that are now known as the classical >> republics. >> >> Several republics also developed during the Middle Ages in the >> merchant dominated city states. >> >> [edit] Classical republics >> Main article: classical republic >> The concept of the "republic" itself was not a meaningful concept in >> the classical world.[23] There are number of states of the classical >> era that are today by convention called republics. These include the >> city states of ancient Greece such as Athens and Sparta[24] and the >> Roman Republic. The structure and governance of these states was very >> different from that of any modern republic.[25] There is a debate >> about whether the classical, medieval, and modern republics form a >> historic continuum.[16] JGA Pocock has played a central role,[16] >> arguing that there is a distinct republican tradition that stretches >> from the classical world to the present.[10] Other scholars >> disagree.[16] Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical >> republics had a form of government with few links to those in any >> modern country.[24] >> >> >> A map of the Roman EmpireThe political philosophy of the classical >> republics has had a central influence on republican thought throughout >> the subsequent centuries. A number of classical writers discussed >> forms of government alternative to monarchies and later writers have >> treated these as foundational works on the nature of republics. >> Philosophers and politicians advocating for republics, such as >> Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on these >> sources. >> >> Aristotle's Politics discusses various forms of government. One form >> Aristotle named politeia consisted of a mixture of the other forms he >> argued this was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybius >> expanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on the idea of mixed >> government. The most important Roman work in this tradition is >> Cicero's De re publica. >> >> Over time the classical republics were either conquered by empires or >> became one themselves. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the >> Macedonian Empire of Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded >> dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that >> could be considered republics, such as Carthaginian Republic. The >> Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire. >> >> [edit] Other ancient republics >> In the pre-modern period republics are generally considered to have >> been a solely European phenomenon, and states in other parts of the >> world with similar governments are not generally referred to as >> republics.[16] Some early states outside of Europe had governments >> that are sometimes today considered similar to republics. In the >> ancient Near East, a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean >> achieved collective rule. Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest >> known examples of a republic, in which the people, rather than a >> monarch, are described as sovereign.[26] The Israelite confederation >> of the era before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type >> of republic.[16][18] >> >> One part of the world where much attention has been paid ancient >> republics is India. In the early 20th century a number of Indian >> scholars, most notably as KP Jayaswal, argued that a number of states >> of ancient India had republican forms of government.[27] There are no >> surviving constitutions or works of political philosophy from this >> period in Indian history. The forms of government thus need to be >> deduced, mostly from the surviving religious texts. These texts do >> refer to a number of states having Gaṇa sangha, or council-based, as >> opposed to monarchial governments. >> >> A second form of evidence comes from Greeks writing about India during >> the period of contact following the conquests of Alexander. Greek >> writers about India such as Megasthenes and Arrian describe many of >> the states there to have republican governments akin to those of >> Greece.[28] Beginning around 700 BCE republics developed in a band >> running along the Indus Valley in the northwest and along the Ganges >> Plain in the northeast. They were mainly small states, though some >> confederations of republics seem to have formed that covered large >> areas, such as Vajji, which had Vaishali as its capital around 600 >> BCE.[29] >> >> As in Greece, the republican era came to an end in the 4th century >> with the rise of a monarchial empire. The Maurya Empire conquered >> almost the entire subcontinent, ending the autonomy of the small >> republics. Some did remain republics under Mauryan suzerainty, or >> returned to being republics after the fall of the empire. Madra, for >> instance, survived as a republic until the 4th century CE. The final >> end of republics in India came with the rise of the Gupta Empire, and >> an associated philosophy of the divine nature of monarchy. >> >> [edit] Mercantile republics >> >> Giovan Battista Tiepolo, Neptune offers the wealth of the sea to >> Venice, 1748–50. This painting is an allegory of the power of the >> Republic of Venice.In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle >> Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of >> government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states in >> which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Haakonssen notes >> that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states >> controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by >> a commercial elite being republics.[11] >> >> Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important >> trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the >> feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe >> began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more >> centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city >> charters. >> >> In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire, 51 of the largest >> towns became free imperial cities. While still under the dominion of >> the Holy Roman Emperor most power was held locally and many adopted >> republican forms of government.[30] The same rights to imperial >> immediacy were secured by the major trading cities of Switzerland. The >> towns and villages of alpine Switzerland had, courtesy of geography, >> also been largely excluded from central control. Unlike Italy and >> Germany, much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudal >> barons, but by independent farmers who also used communal forms of >> government. When the Habsburgs tried to reassert control over the >> region both rural farmers and town merchants joined the rebellion. The >> Swiss were victorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed, and >> Switzerland has retained a republican form of government to the >> present.[31] >> >> Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with >> the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained >> considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. >> Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, >> gaining control of the rural hinterland.[30] The two most powerful >> were the Republic of Venice and its rival the Republic of Genoa. Each >> were large trading ports, and further expanded by using naval power to >> control large parts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an >> ideology advocating for republics first developed. Writers such as >> Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius of Padua, and >> Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-states as heirs to the legacy of >> Greece and Rome. >> >> Two Northern Russian cities with powerful merchant class — Novgorod >> and Pskov — also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and >> 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when the republics were >> conquered by Moscow in the 20th[citation needed] century. >> >> The dominant form of government for these early republics was control >> by a limited council of elite patricians. In those areas that held >> elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both >> who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections >> were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the >> existing council. This left the great majority of the population >> without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes >> were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in >> the towns of the Holy Roman Empire.[32] Similar revolts occurred in >> Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence. >> >> [edit] Protestant republics >> While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source >> for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the Protestant >> Reformation would be used as justification for establishing new >> republics.[33] Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed >> in the Swiss Confederacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the >> medieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolition of >> monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faithful had the right >> to overthrow irreligious monarchs.[34] Calvinism also espoused a >> fierce egalitarianism and an opposition to hierarchy. Advocacy for >> republics appeared in the writings of the Huguenots during the French >> Wars of Religion.[35] >> >> Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in >> Britain and the Netherlands. Like the city-states of Italy and the >> Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large >> merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large >> parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. The >> Dutch Revolt, beginning in 1568, saw the Dutch Republic reject the >> rule of Habsburg Spain in a conflict that lasted until 1648. >> >> In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded by the Puritans and >> funded by the merchants of London, the revolt was a success, and King >> Charles I was executed. In England James Harrington, Algernon Sydney, >> and John Milton became some of the first writers to argue for >> rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican form of government. The >> English Commonwealth was short lived, and the monarchy soon restored. >> The Dutch Republic continued in name until 1795, but by the mid 18th >> century the stadholder had become a de facto monarch. Calvinists were >> also some of the earliest settlers of the British and Dutch colonies >> of North America. >> >> [edit] Liberal republics >> >> An allegory of the Republic in ParisAlong with these initial >> republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in >> monarchial power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited >> and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle >> Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch >> as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism. >> >> Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas >> of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had >> discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended >> in either anarchy or tyranny.[36] Thus philosophers like Voltaire >> opposed absolutism while at the same time being strongly pro-monarchy. >> >> >> Septinsular Republic flag from the early 1800s >> A revolutionary Republican hand-written bill from the Stockholm riots >> during the Revolutions of 1848, reading: "Dethrone Oscar he is not fit >> to be a king rather the Republic! The Reform! down with the Royal >> house, long live Aftonbladet! death to the king / Republic Republic >> the people. Brunkeberg this evening". The writer's identity is >> unknown.Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu praised republics, and >> looked on the city-states of Greece as a model. However, both also >> felt that a nation-state like France, with 20 million people, would be >> impossible to govern as a republic. Rousseau described his ideal >> political structure of small self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt >> that a city-state should ideally be a republic, but maintained that a >> limited monarchy was better suited to a large nation. >> >> The American Revolution thus began as a rejection only of the >> authority of British parliament over the colonies. The failure of the >> British monarch to protect the colonies from what they considered the >> infringement of their rights to representative government, and the >> monarch's branding of those requesting redress as traitors compounded >> by sending combat troops to demonstrate authority resulted in >> widespread perception of the British monarchy as tyrannical. With the >> Declaration of Independence the leaders of the revolt firmly rejected >> the monarchy and embraced republicanism. The leaders of the revolution >> were well versed in the writings of the French liberal thinkers, and >> also in history of the classical republics. John Adams had notably >> written a book on republics throughout history. In addition, the >> widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract Common Sense, by >> Thomas Paine, succinctly and eloquently laid out the case for >> republican ideals and independence to the larger public. The >> Constitution of the United States ratified in 1789 created a >> relatively strong federal republic to replace the relatively weak >> confederation under the first attempt at a national government with >> the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union ratified in 1783. >> The first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the United States >> Bill of Rights, guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to >> republican ideals that justified the Revolution. >> >> The French Revolution was also not republican at its outset. Only >> after the Flight to Varennes removed most of the remaining sympathy >> for the king was a republic declared and Louis XVI sent to the >> guillotine. The stunning success of France in the French Revolutionary >> Wars saw republics spread by force of arms across much of Europe as a >> series of client republics were set up across the continent. The rise >> of Napoleon saw the end of the First French Republic, and his eventual >> defeat allowed the victorious monarchies to put an end to many of the >> oldest republics on the continent, including Venice, Genoa, and the >> Dutch. >> >> Outside of Europe another group of republics was created as the >> Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin America to gain their >> independence. Liberal ideology had only a limited impact on these new >> republics. The main impetus was the local European descended Creole >> population in conflict with the Peninsulares governors sent from >> overseas. The majority of the population in most of Latin America was >> of either African or Amerindian decent, and the Creole elite had >> little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular >> sovereignty. Simón Bolívar was both the main instigator of the revolts >> and one of its most important theorists was sympathetic to liberal >> ideals, but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for >> such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary. >> >> In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the >> First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court >> was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a >> monarchy in September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until >> 1889. In the other states various forms of autocratic republic existed >> until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century.[37] >> >> The Second French Republic was created in 1848, and the Third French >> Republic in 1871. Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic, but >> the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century >> France and Switzerland remained the only republics in Europe. Before >> World War I, the Portuguese Republic, established by the revolution of >> October 5, 1910, was the first of the 20th century. This would >> encourage new republics in the aftermath of the war, when several of >> the largest European empires collapsed. The German Empire, >> Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russian Empire, and Ottoman Empire were then >> replaced by republics. New states gained independence during this >> turmoil, and many of these, such as Ireland, Poland[disambiguation >> needed], Finland and Czechoslovakia, chose republican forms of >> government. In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) turned >> into a civil war would be the prelude of World War II. >> >> Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States >> began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of >> the 19th century, with Protestant missionaries playing a central role. >> The liberal and republican writers of the west also exerted influence. >> These combined with native Confucian inspired political philosophy >> that had long argued that the populace had the right to reject unjust >> government that had lost the Mandate of Heaven. >> >> Two short lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia, the Republic >> of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic. China had seen >> considerable anti-Qing sentiment, and a number of protest movements >> developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important >> leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles of the >> People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. The Republic of >> China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912. >> >> [edit] Socialist republics >> See also Socialist state >> Strictly speaking, any real or hypothetical state organized along the >> principles of socialism may be called a socialist state. The term >> "socialist republic" is used by those socialists who wish to emphasize >> that they favour a republican form of government. Furthermore, since >> socialism purports to represent the interests of the working class, >> many socialists refer to a state organized according to their >> principles as a workers' state. >> >> [edit] Communist republics >> See also People's Republic >> Communist states such as Vietnam require that their leaders adhere to >> that ideology and to the line of the Communist party.[citation needed] >> However, most of these states allow independent politicians >> (non-affiliated).[citation needed] >> >> >> A poster that commemorates the permanent President of the Republic of >> China Yuan Shikai and the provisional President of the Republic[edit] >> Decolonization >> >> A map of the Commonwealth republicsIn the years following World War >> II, most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, >> and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France >> and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment >> of republics in its former colonies. Great Britain attempted to follow >> the model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating >> independent commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarchy. >> While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states of the >> Caribbean retained this system, it was rejected by the newly >> independent countries in Africa and Asia, which revised their >> constitutions and became republics. >> >> Britain followed a different model in the Middle East; it installed >> local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including Iraq, >> Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen and Libya. In subsequent decades >> revolutions and coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installed >> republics. Several monarchies remain, and the Middle East is the only >> part of the world where several large states are ruled by monarchs >> with almost complete political control.[38] >> >> [edit] Islamic republics >> Main article: Islamic republic >> Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to >> absolute monarchy, notably in the work of Al-Farabi. Sharia law took >> precedence over the will of the ruler, and electing rulers by means of >> the Shura was an important doctrine. While the early caliphate >> maintained the principles of an elected ruler, later states became >> hereditary or military dictatorships though many maintained some >> pretense of a consultative shura. >> >> None of these states are typically referred to as republics. The >> current usage of republic in Muslim countries is borrowed from the >> western meaning, adopted into the language in the late 19th >> century.[39] The 20th century saw republicanism become an important >> idea in much of the Middle East, as monarchies were removed in many >> states of the region. Some such as Iraq and Turkey became secular >> republics. Some nations, such as Indonesia and Azerbaijan, began as >> secular. In Iran, the 1979 revolution overthrew the monarchy and >> created an Islamic Republic based the ideas of Islamic democracy. >> >> [edit] Head of state >> [edit] Structure >> With no monarch, most modern republics use the title president for the >> head of state. Originally used to refer to the presiding officer of a >> committee or governing body in Great Britain the usage was also >> applied to political leaders, including the leaders of some of the >> Thirteen Colonies (originally Virginia in 1608); in full, the >> "President of the Council."[40] The first republic to adopt the title >> was the United States of America. Keeping its usage as the head of a >> committee the President of the Continental Congress was the leader of >> the original congress. When the new constitution was written the title >> of President of the United States was conferred on the head of the new >> executive branch. Today almost all republics use the title president >> for the head of state. >> >> If the head of state of a republic is also the head of government, >> this is called a presidential system. There are a number of forms of >> presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president >> with substantial authority and a central political role. The United >> States was the first example of such a system, and the basis for the >> model adopted elsewhere. In other states the legislature is dominant >> and the president's role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, >> such as in Germany and India. >> >> These states are parliamentary republics and operate similarly to >> constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems where the power >> of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. In parliamentary systems >> the head of government, most often titled prime minister, exercises >> the most real political power. Semi-presidential systems have a >> president as an active head of state, but also have a head of >> government with important powers. >> >> The rules for appointing the president and the leader of the >> government, in some republics permit the appointment of a president >> and a prime minister who have opposing political convictions: in >> France, when the members of the ruling cabinet and the president come >> from opposing political factions, this situation is called >> cohabitation. >> >> In some countries, like Switzerland and San Marino, the head of state >> is not a single person but a committee (council) of several persons >> holding that office. The Roman Republic had two consuls, appointed for >> a year. >> >> [edit] Election >> In liberal democracies presidents are elected, either directly by the >> people or indirectly by a parliament or council. Typically in >> presidential and semi-presidential systems the president is directly >> elected by the people, or is indirectly elected as done in the United >> States. In that country the president is officially elected by an >> electoral college, chosen by the States, all of which do so by direct >> election of the electors. The indirect election of the president >> through the electoral college conforms to the concept of republic as >> one with a system of indirect election. In the opinion of some, direct >> election confers legitimacy upon the president and gives the office >> much of its political power.[41] However, this concept of legitimacy >> differs from that expressed in the United States Constitution which >> established the legitimacy of the United States president as resulting >> from the signing of the Constitution by 9 states.[42] The idea that >> direct election is required for legitimacy also contradicts the spirit >> of the Great Compromise, whose actual result was manifest in the >> clause[43] that provides voters in smaller states with slightly more >> representation in presidential selection than those in large states. >> >> In states with a parliamentary system the president is usually elected >> by the parliament. This indirect elections subordinates the president >> to the parliament, and also gives the president limited legitimacy and >> turns most presidential powers into reserve powers that can only be >> exercised under rare circumstance. There are exceptions where elected >> presidents have only ceremonial powers, such as in the Republic of >> Ireland. >> >> [edit] Ambiguities >> The distinction between a republic and a monarchy are not always >> clear. The constitutional monarchies of the former British Empire and >> Western Europe today have almost all real political power vested in >> the elected representatives, with the monarchs only holding >> theoretical and rarely used reserve powers. Real legitimacy for >> political decisions comes from the elected representatives and is >> derived from the will of the people. While hereditary monarchies >> remain in place, political power is derived from the people as in a >> republic. These states are thus sometimes referred to as crowned >> republics.[44] >> >> Terms such as liberal republic are also used to describe all of the >> modern liberal democracies.[45] >> >> There are also self proclaimed republics that act similarly to >> monarchies with absolute power vested in the leader and passed down >> from father to son. North Korea and Syria are two notable examples >> where a son has inherited political control. Neither of these states >> are officially monarchies. There is no constitutional requirement that >> power be passed down within one family, but it has occurred in >> practice. >> >> There are also elective monarchy where ultimate power is vested in a >> monarch, but the monarch is chosen by some manner of election. A >> current example of such a state is Malaysia where the Yang di-Pertuan >> Agong is elected every five years by the Conference of Rulers composed >> of the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states. While rare today, >> elective monarchs were common in the past. The Holy Roman Empire is an >> important example, where each new emperor was chosen by a group of >> electors. Islamic states also rarely employed primogeniture instead >> relying on various forms of election to chose a monarchs successor. >> >> The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a >> wide suffrage of some 500,000 nobles. The system, known as the Golden >> Liberty, had developed as a method for powerful landowners to control >> the crown. The proponents of this system looked to classical examples, >> and the writings of the Italian Renaissance, and called their elective >> monarchy a rzeczpospolita, based on res publica. >> >> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic >> >> On 10/20/10, Tommy News<[email protected]> wrote: >>> So, then in other words, >>> Republicans, whose purpose is to control, are like Facists. Their >>> purpose is to control The Majority strictly, as well as all others >>> among the people. >>> >>> Democrats, whose purpose is to rule In a fair Democracy, and any group >>> of Individuals composing any Minority, have no protection against the >>> unlimited power of The Majority, and therefore must keep the >>> Republicans from taking control of the government again in order to >>> protect themselves from unlimited power of facist Republicans. >>> >>> Corporate greed, absolute control, and absoulute power is Republican. >>> >>> Justice, well being, liberty, the persuit of happiness, and fair >>> representation by and for individuals is Democratic. >>> >>> Gotta love it. >>> >>> On 10/20/10, Jonathan Ashley<[email protected]> wrote: >>>> Anyone following this thread can see you are dodging the question. >>>> >>>> You have spent a considerable amount of time doing so. >>>> >>>> So based on your refusal to answer the question, and, based on your >>>> assertion that it was a baited question, I can only conclude that you >>>> are a closet socialist. >>>> >>>> On 10/20/2010 10:47 AM, Tommy News wrote: >>>>> No, I am not. >>>>> >>>>> On 10/20/10, Jonathan Ashley<[email protected]> wrote: >>>>>> Of course you're dodging the question. >>>>>> >>>>>> It's not like I was asking you for a 15-page dissertation on your >>>>>> beliefs. I simply asked you to chose between two brief descriptions of >>>>>> two types of governments. >>>>>> >>>>>> On 10/20/2010 10:24 AM, Tommy News wrote: >>>>>>> I am not dodging the question. >>>>>>> >>>>>>> >>>>>>> I said that it is a dumb and baited question and I stand buy that >>>>>>> statement. >>>>>>> I believe in Democracy. I am an American. >>>>>>> >>>>>>> On 10/20/10, Jonathan Ashley<[email protected]> wrote: >>>>>>>> Why are you dodging the question, Tommy? >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> You are subscribed to a political forum. How is asking which of two >>>>>>>> systems of government you think we should follow being silly? >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> The fact that you understand it is a baited question leads me to >>>>>>>> believe >>>>>>>> you know you are a socialist. You're just afraid to admit it. >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> Or, perhaps - since you push all the collectivism crap on us - you >>>>>>>> prefer being called a collectivist. >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *Collectivist*, n. An advocate of collectivism. -- a. >>>>>>>> Relating >>>>>>>> to, >>>>>>>> or characteristic of, collectivism.* >>>>>>>> * >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *Collectivism*, n. The doctrine that land and capital should >>>>>>>> be >>>>>>>> owned by society collectively or as a whole; communism. >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> On 10/20/2010 10:07 AM, Tommy News wrote: >>>>>>>>> Why would you even ask such a silly, baited, and officiously >>>>>>>>> offensive >>>>>>>>> question? >>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>> I am not a Marxist, Socialist, or Communist. >>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>> Centrist Liberals, Democrats, and President Obama are not either. >>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>> On 10/20/10, Jonathan Ashley<[email protected]> >>>>>>>>> wrote: >>>>>>>>>> Should have read: >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> Tommy, >>>>>>>>>>> Which one of the following systems of government do you believe >>>>>>>>>>> we >>>>>>>>>>> should follow? >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> 1. A system in which the means of production and >>>>>>>>>>> distribution >>>>>>>>>>> are >>>>>>>>>>> privately or corporately owned and development is >>>>>>>>>>> proportionate >>>>>>>>>>> to >>>>>>>>>>> the accumulation and reinvestment of profits gained in a >>>>>>>>>>> free >>>>>>>>>>> market. >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> 2. A system of social organization in which the means of >>>>>>>>>>> producing >>>>>>>>>>> and distributing goods is owned collectively or by a >>>>>>>>>>> centralized >>>>>>>>>>> government that often plans and controls the economy. >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> On 10/20/2010 9:36 AM, Tommy News wrote: >>>>>>>>>>>> It appears that you do not know what Marxism is, Keith, as you >>>>>>>>>>>> continually and falsely call Democrats, Centrist liberals, >>>>>>>>>>>> Progressives, and President Obama Marxists, which they are not. >>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>> That is why I sent this piece, to enlighten you, if that is >>>>>>>>>>>> possible. >>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>> Liberals and Democrats are NOT Marxists, Socialists, or >>>>>>>>>>>> Communists. >>>>>>>>>>>> Using these false slurs over and over again is offensive and >>>>>>>>>>>> repetitive. >>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>> I believe that those who slander and disrespect the President >>>>>>>>>>>> are >>>>>>>>>>>> anti-American. >>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>> On 10/20/10, Keith In Tampa<[email protected]> wrote: >>>>>>>>>>>>> Those who don't comprehend or understand what Marxism, >>>>>>>>>>>>> Socialism, >>>>>>>>>>>>> Capitalism, etc., mean, and somehow believe that it is "hate >>>>>>>>>>>>> speech" >>>>>>>>>>>>> by >>>>>>>>>>>>> calling an individual a "Socialist"; because he advocates a >>>>>>>>>>>>> socialistic >>>>>>>>>>>>> political and economic system over a capitalistic, free market >>>>>>>>>>>>> economy, >>>>>>>>>>>>> are >>>>>>>>>>>>> ignorant. >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> I don't mean to say that they are stupid....Far from it. >>>>>>>>>>>>> Actually, >>>>>>>>>>>>> I >>>>>>>>>>>>> have a >>>>>>>>>>>>> lot of respect for these that are ignorant, or Anti-American. >>>>>>>>>>>>> They >>>>>>>>>>>>> are >>>>>>>>>>>>> dangerous to our Nation. I have come to the conclusion that >>>>>>>>>>>>> these >>>>>>>>>>>>> folks >>>>>>>>>>>>> fall into one of two categories: >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> (A) *e.g.;* Most of them are ill informed and not well read. >>>>>>>>>>>>> They >>>>>>>>>>>>> don't >>>>>>>>>>>>> keep up with current events, other than to watch liberal, >>>>>>>>>>>>> biased >>>>>>>>>>>>> mainstream >>>>>>>>>>>>> media, or read and follow far left slanted web sites, never >>>>>>>>>>>>> taking >>>>>>>>>>>>> the >>>>>>>>>>>>> time >>>>>>>>>>>>> to comprehend why or how any specific situation or came to be, >>>>>>>>>>>>> or >>>>>>>>>>>>> the >>>>>>>>>>>>> root >>>>>>>>>>>>> cause, genesis or motivation of any particular issue. They >>>>>>>>>>>>> tend >>>>>>>>>>>>> to >>>>>>>>>>>>> believe >>>>>>>>>>>>> that they are the only ones that are compassionate, failing to >>>>>>>>>>>>> realize >>>>>>>>>>>>> that >>>>>>>>>>>>> it is statistically proven in fact, that those who are >>>>>>>>>>>>> conservative >>>>>>>>>>>>> contribute far more money& resources to charitable causes. >>>>>>>>>>>>> Further, >>>>>>>>>>>>> (and >>>>>>>>>>>>> just as important!) these same individuals don't have a lot of >>>>>>>>>>>>> knowledge >>>>>>>>>>>>> of >>>>>>>>>>>>> our history; they fail to understand or comprehend the >>>>>>>>>>>>> principals >>>>>>>>>>>>> and >>>>>>>>>>>>> tenets >>>>>>>>>>>>> that made the United States the greatest Nation-State in the >>>>>>>>>>>>> World, >>>>>>>>>>>>> bar >>>>>>>>>>>>> none. In general, these people reject the notion that our >>>>>>>>>>>>> founding >>>>>>>>>>>>> fathers >>>>>>>>>>>>> were influenced by Christian principals and tenets, but they do >>>>>>>>>>>>> understand >>>>>>>>>>>>> enough history that they would very much like to revise this >>>>>>>>>>>>> one >>>>>>>>>>>>> important >>>>>>>>>>>>> aspect. Thus their lack of understanding and reasoning; or, >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> (B) They are literally Anti-Americans, and they want to see >>>>>>>>>>>>> the >>>>>>>>>>>>> United >>>>>>>>>>>>> States become equal to or consistent with a third world or >>>>>>>>>>>>> fourth >>>>>>>>>>>>> world >>>>>>>>>>>>> Nation-State. >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> There is literally no other option. >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> The point being, is that ALL of these folks are hypocritical, >>>>>>>>>>>>> and >>>>>>>>>>>>> filled >>>>>>>>>>>>> with hate. When confronted with truth, logic, or just basic >>>>>>>>>>>>> facts, >>>>>>>>>>>>> all >>>>>>>>>>>>> they >>>>>>>>>>>>> can resort to is slinging out hate filled smear, and the >>>>>>>>>>>>> typical >>>>>>>>>>>>> far >>>>>>>>>>>>> left, >>>>>>>>>>>>> Socialist-Elitist talking points that have been generated by >>>>>>>>>>>>> the >>>>>>>>>>>>> George >>>>>>>>>>>>> Soros' funded foundations, media organizations and social >>>>>>>>>>>>> networks. >>>>>>>>>>>>> All >>>>>>>>>>>>> they can do, is attack the messenger. >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> On Wed, Oct 20, 2010 at 11:13 AM, Tommy >>>>>>>>>>>>> News<[email protected]> >>>>>>>>>>>>> wrote: >>>>>>>>>>>>> Thiose who use words as clubs are misguided bullies. >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>>>>>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>>>>>>>>>>> For options& help >>>>>>>>>>>>> seehttp://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>> * Visit our other community athttp://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>>>>>>>>>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>>>>>>>>>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>>>>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>>>>> *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® >>>>>>>>>>> <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The >>>>>>>>>>> Federal >>>>>>>>>>> Government* >>>>>>>>>>> http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be >>>>>>>>>>> governed are weak.* >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really >>>>>>>>>>> happening. What >>>>>>>>>>> separates politicians from other criminal organizations is >>>>>>>>>>> superior >>>>>>>>>>> public relations." >>>>>>>>>>> - Marc Stevens >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something >>>>>>>>>>> that >>>>>>>>>>> cannot be." >>>>>>>>>>> - Thomas Jefferson**** >>>>>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>>>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>>>>>>>>> For options& help see >>>>>>>>>>> http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>> * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>>>>>>>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>>>>>>>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>>>>>>>>>> Your personal email. Anytime, anywhere. >>>>>>>>>>> Ridiculously affordable at $19.95. No contracts. >>>>>>>>>>> http://www.getpeek.com/lavabit.html >>>>>>>>>>> <%20http://www.getpeek.com/lavabit.html> >>>>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>>>> *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® >>>>>>>>>> <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The >>>>>>>>>> Federal >>>>>>>>>> Government* >>>>>>>>>> http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be >>>>>>>>>> governed are weak.* >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really >>>>>>>>>> happening. What >>>>>>>>>> separates politicians from other criminal organizations is >>>>>>>>>> superior >>>>>>>>>> public relations." >>>>>>>>>> - Marc Stevens >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something >>>>>>>>>> that >>>>>>>>>> cannot be." >>>>>>>>>> - Thomas Jefferson**** >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>>>>>>>> For options& help see >>>>>>>>>> http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>> * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>>>>>>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>>>>>>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>> *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® >>>>>>>> <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The Federal >>>>>>>> Government* >>>>>>>> http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be >>>>>>>> governed are weak.* >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really >>>>>>>> happening. What >>>>>>>> separates politicians from other criminal organizations is superior >>>>>>>> public relations." >>>>>>>> - Marc Stevens >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something >>>>>>>> that >>>>>>>> cannot be." >>>>>>>> - Thomas Jefferson**** >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> -- >>>>>>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>>>>>> For options& help see >>>>>>>> http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>>>>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>>>>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>>>>> -- >>>>>> *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® >>>>>> <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* >>>>>> >>>>>> *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The Federal >>>>>> Government* >>>>>> http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html >>>>>> >>>>>> *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. >>>>>> >>>>>> *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be >>>>>> governed are weak.* >>>>>> >>>>>> *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really >>>>>> happening. What >>>>>> separates politicians from other criminal organizations is superior >>>>>> public relations." >>>>>> - Marc Stevens >>>>>> >>>>>> "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something that >>>>>> cannot be." >>>>>> - Thomas Jefferson**** >>>>>> >>>>>> -- >>>>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>>>> For options& help see http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>>>> >>>>>> * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>>> -- >>>> *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® >>>> <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* >>>> >>>> *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The Federal >>>> Government* >>>> http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html >>>> >>>> *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. >>>> >>>> *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be >>>> governed are weak.* >>>> >>>> *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really >>>> happening. What >>>> separates politicians from other criminal organizations is superior >>>> public relations." >>>> - Marc Stevens >>>> >>>> "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something that >>>> cannot be." >>>> - Thomas Jefferson**** >>>> >>>> -- >>>> Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. >>>> For options& help see http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum >>>> >>>> * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ >>>> * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. >>>> * Read the latest breaking news, and more. >>> >>> -- >>> Together, we can change the world, one mind at a time. >>> Have a great day, >>> Tommy >>> >> > > -- > *Your Remedy Is In The Courts Jurisdictionary® > <http://www.jurisdictionary.com?refercode=CG0004>* > > *I Refuse To Comply With The Unconstitutional Demands Of The Federal > Government* > http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html > > *Government is a disease masquerading as its own cure. > > *Government is only as strong as those who allow themselves to be > governed are weak.* > > *"The 'art' of politics is diverting attention from what's really > happening. What > separates politicians from other criminal organizations is superior > public relations." > - Marc Stevens > > "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free it expects something that > cannot be." > - Thomas Jefferson**** > > -- > Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. > For options & help see http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum > > * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ > * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. > * Read the latest breaking news, and more. -- Together, we can change the world, one mind at a time. Have a great day, Tommy -- Thanks for being part of "PoliticalForum" at Google Groups. For options & help see http://groups.google.com/group/PoliticalForum * Visit our other community at http://www.PoliticalForum.com/ * It's active and moderated. Register and vote in our polls. * Read the latest breaking news, and more.
